Final Chapters 25, 26 And Others

the vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, and the urethra carry sperm

The myocardium is the heart muscle, which is responsible for pumping the blood. It contains actin and myosin, which are contractile proteins involved in muscle contraction. However, it is not true that the myocardium is found only in the ventricles and not in the atria. The myocardium is present in both the ventricles and the atria, as it is essential for the coordinated contraction of the entire heart.

bicarbonate is an anion because it carries a negative charge

the fertilized ovum (zygote) is located within the fallopian tubes. the corpus luteum, graafian follicle and the corpus albicans are found in the ovary

the ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone. the anterior pituitary gland secretes the gonadotropins (FSH and LH) the corpus albicans is nonsecretory

the fallopian tube is the site of fertilization; it receives the ovum from the ovary

the chief extracellular cation (positively charged ion) is sodium (Na+)

plasma is not considered transcellular fluid; it is an extracellular fluid

Under normal conditions, glucose does not appear in the urine; glucosuria develops in response to hyperglycemia, as in diabetes mellitus

interstitial cell-stimulating hormone, also called luteinizing hormone or LH, stimulates the interstitial cells to secrete testosterone. it is one of the gonadotropins.

Hypoxemia is the most likely cause of cyanosis. Cyanosis is a bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes due to a lack of oxygen in the blood. Hypoxemia refers to low oxygen levels in the blood, which can occur due to various reasons such as lung diseases, heart conditions, or respiratory failure. When the blood lacks oxygen, it appears bluish, leading to cyanosis. Leukocytosis refers to an increased number of white blood cells, thrombocytopenia is a low platelet count, and jaundice is a yellowing of the skin and eyes due to liver dysfunction, none of which directly cause cyanosis.

respiratory rate is most sensitive to the effects of H+: excess H+ stimulates the respiratory rate (as in Kussmaul respirations)

the seminiferous tubules, located in the testes, produce sperm. the surrounding interstitial cells secrete the testosterone that nourishes the sperm

the ejaculatory duct and vas deferens are tubes that carry semen and sperm; they do not carry urine. The urethra carries semen and urine and is part of both the urinary tract and the male reproductive tract

the vulva is referred to as the external genitals

the broad ligament, located in the pelvis, externally supports the uterus

Deglutition is the medical term for the process of swallowing. It involves the movement of food or liquid from the mouth, through the throat, and into the esophagus. Therefore, deglutition is most closely associated with the word "swallowing."

the adrenal cortical hormone, aldosterone, stimulates the distal tubule to reabsorb Na+ and to excrete K+

the fundus is the dome of the uterus; on either side of the fundus are the openings of the fallopian tubes

The cartilaginous rings prevent the collapse of the trachea. These rings provide structural support and help to keep the trachea open, allowing for the passage of air. The rings are made of strong, flexible cartilage that maintains the shape and integrity of the trachea, preventing it from collapsing or obstructing the airway.

urinary specific gravity is a measure of the hydration status of the body. an elevated SG is indicative of dehydration; a low SG indicated blood volume expansion

the cervix is the end of the uterus; it "dips" into the top part of the vagina

a midcycle surge of LH causes ovulation in the female; ovulation incolves the expulsion of an egg from the ovary into the fallopian tube

the gonadotropins, FSH and LH, are secreted by the anterior pituitary gland; they are aimed at the gonads (ovaries and testes)

PTH (parathyroid hormone) stimulates the tubules to reabsorb calcium and to excrete phosphate (its phosphaturic effect)

the sperm are produced in the seminiferous tubules; testosterone is secreted by the surrounding interstitial cells. the sperm are transported in the semen through the vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra

Starling's law of the heart states that the force of contraction of the heart increases as the volume of blood in the ventricles increases (preload). Therefore, a change in preload causes a change in myocardial contractile force, which is the response described in the question. This phenomenon is not related to inotropic effect, dromotropic effect, or chronotropic effect, which involve different aspects of cardiac function.

The contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles is responsible for ventilation, which refers to the process of breathing. When the diaphragm contracts and the intercostal muscles expand, the volume of the thoracic cavity increases, causing a decrease in pressure. This decrease in pressure allows air to flow into the lungs, facilitating the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Therefore, the contraction and relaxation of these muscles play a crucial role in the process of ventilation.

hyperventilation causes the excretion of CO2 and a decrease in [H+], thereby causing alkalosis (a pH greater than 7.45)

the embryo is implanted within the uterus, where it grows for 9 months,. If the embryo implants within the fallopian tube (oviduct), it is called an ectopic pregnancy.

an acid is defined as a substance that donates H+ upon dissolving (as in HC1 dissociating to H+ and C1-)

the ovaries and testes are the gonads; they produce gametes (eggs and sperm) they are stimulated by the gonadotropins (FSH and LH)

The alveoli are small air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of respiratory gases takes place. They are not directly involved in determining the flow of air through the respiratory passages, which is instead regulated by the smooth muscles in the bronchial tree. Therefore, the option "contains smooth muscle that determines the flow of air through the respiratory passages" is least related to the alveoli.

the corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone. the progesterone helps to make the uterine endometrial lining "juicy" for possible implantation of a fertilized ovum

Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are not typically characterized by stickiness, plug formation, and hemostasis. These functions are more commonly associated with platelets and the coagulation cascade. Erythrocytes are formed in the red bone marrow, a deficiency in them can cause anemia, and their primary function is the transport of oxygen throughout the body.

The correct answer is "to the lungs for oxygenation". The right heart is responsible for pumping deoxygenated blood from the body to the lungs, where it receives oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide. This oxygenated blood is then returned to the left heart, which pumps it to the rest of the body through the systemic circulation.

Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid hormone that is responsible for regulating the body's balance of sodium and water. It acts on the tubules of the kidneys to promote the reabsorption of sodium and water, thereby increasing blood volume and blood pressure. However, aldosterone does not determine the membrane permeability of the glomeruli to water. The permeability of the glomeruli to water is primarily regulated by antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin.

estrogen and progesterone, secreted by the ovaries, affect the buildup and development of the endometrial lining of the uterus. Loss of hormonal support causes menstruation, during which, part of the endometrial lining is shed

most body water is located within the intracellular compartment

Iron does not bind irreversibly to oxygen. In fact, iron binds reversibly to oxygen in the heme part of hemoglobin. This allows for the efficient transport of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and also enables the release of oxygen when needed. Iron is also recycled in the body, as it is constantly being used and reused in various biological processes.

The correct answer states that the drug activates the beta1 adrenergic receptors and causes a (+) inotropic effect. This means that the drug binds to and stimulates the beta1 adrenergic receptors, leading to an increase in the force of contraction of the heart muscles. This positive inotropic effect helps to improve the pumping function of the heart, which is beneficial for a patient in heart failure.

the seminiferous tubules produce sperm; the interstitial cells secrete testosterone

The salivary glands do secrete digestive enzymes, but it is not accurate to say that they secrete the most important ones. While the salivary glands do produce amylase, an enzyme that helps break down carbohydrates, the pancreas is primarily responsible for secreting the most important digestive enzymes such as lipase, protease, and amylase. Therefore, the statement that the salivary glands secrete the most important digestive enzymes is not true.

The stomach delivers chyme to the duodenum at the proper rate. This is important because the duodenum is the first part of the small intestine where further digestion and absorption of nutrients occur. If the stomach delivers chyme too quickly, it may overwhelm the duodenum and hinder proper digestion and absorption. On the other hand, if the stomach delivers chyme too slowly, it may cause a backup and lead to discomfort or indigestion. Therefore, delivering chyme to the duodenum at the proper rate is crucial for optimal digestion and absorption of nutrients.

A deficiency of aldosterone, a hormone produced by the adrenal glands, leads to a decrease in the reabsorption of sodium and water in the tubules of the kidneys. This results in a significant decrease in blood volume, which in turn causes hypotension, or low blood pressure. Hypotension is characterized by symptoms such as dizziness, lightheadedness, and fainting. Therefore, the given answer of hypotension is correct in this context.

excess diuresis causes excess loss of water, thereby causing dehydration and a decrease in blood volume

Hypoventilation causes CO2 retention, an accumulation of H+ in the blood, and acidosis

emission moves semen from the testes and genital ducts into the urethra. Ejaculation expels the semen from the urethra. Erection refers to the filling of the erectile tissue with blood

The posterior pituitary gland is responsible for releasing two important hormones, ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and oxytocin. ADH helps regulate water balance in the body by controlling the reabsorption of water in the kidneys. Oxytocin plays a role in various reproductive functions, such as stimulating contractions during childbirth and promoting milk letdown during breastfeeding. These hormones are released directly into the bloodstream from the posterior pituitary gland, which is connected to the hypothalamus by nerve fibers.

ACTH, TSH, and gonadotropins are hormones secreted by the adenohypophysis, which is a part of the pituitary gland. These hormones are not hypothalamic releasing hormones, as stated in the question. Hypothalamic releasing hormones are secreted by the hypothalamus and act on the adenohypophysis to stimulate the release of other hormones. In this case, the correct answer is that these hormones are secreted by the adenohypophysis, not the hypothalamus.

S2 is the second heart sound, also known as the "dub" sound, which occurs during ventricular diastole. It is caused by the closure of the semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic valves) at the beginning of ventricular relaxation. This closure prevents the backflow of blood from the arteries into the ventricles. The closure of these valves creates the "dub" sound, indicating the end of systole and the beginning of diastole.

the corpus luteum is found on the ovary; it remains after ovulation and contains cells that secrete estrogen and progesterone

vomiting of stomach contents causes a loss of H+ (HC1 in the stomach) and alkalosis

Preload refers to the amount of blood that fills the ventricle at the end of its resting phase, just before it contracts. It represents the degree of stretch on the ventricular muscle fibers, which affects the force of contraction and therefore the stroke volume (the amount of blood pumped out of the ventricle with each heartbeat). So, the correct answer is preload.

Hypoventilation (emphysema) causes an increase in [H+] and a decreased pH; this is called respiratory acidosis. The kidneys attempt to correct the acidosis by making and reabsorbing filtered bicarbonate

Erythropoietin is a hormone that is released in response to low plasma levels of oxygen. When the oxygen levels in the blood are low, the kidneys detect this and produce erythropoietin. Erythropoietin then stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells, which carry oxygen to the tissues. This response helps to increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and restore normal oxygen levels.

The firing of the SA node is least related to "lubb" (of the lubb-dubb duo) because the SA node is responsible for initiating the electrical signal that starts the cardiac cycle, whereas "lubb" refers to the first heart sound caused by the closure of the AV valves. The SA node and the initiation of the electrical signal are not directly associated with the closure of the AV valves and the production of the "lubb" sound.

Based on the given information, the drug causes a (-) chronotropic effect, which means it decreases the heart rate. Therefore, the expected drug response would be a slow heart rate.

the prostate gland surrounds the upper urethra; it contributes to the formation of semen. an enlarged prostate compresses the urethra, interfering with urination

The contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles directly affect the changes in thoracic volume. When the diaphragm contracts and moves downward, and the intercostal muscles contract and lift the ribcage, the thoracic cavity expands, increasing its volume. This expansion creates a negative pressure within the lungs, causing air to rush in and fill the lungs during inhalation. Conversely, when the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, the thoracic cavity decreases in volume, creating a positive pressure that forces air out of the lungs during exhalation. Therefore, changes in thoracic volume play a crucial role in ventilation.

In heart failure, the heart is unable to pump blood effectively, leading to a decrease in ejection fraction, which is the percentage of blood pumped out of the heart with each contraction. As the heart becomes weaker, it may not be able to fully empty during systole, resulting in an increase in end-diastolic volume (EDV), which is the amount of blood in the ventricles at the end of diastole. Therefore, in heart failure, EDV is most likely to increase while ejection fraction decreases.

The process of urine concentration by the collecting ducts occurs last because it is the final step in the formation of urine. After glomerular filtration, where waste products and excess water are filtered out of the blood, and reabsorption of Na+ and secretion of K+ occur, the remaining filtrate enters the collecting ducts. In the collecting ducts, water is reabsorbed back into the bloodstream, concentrating the urine and removing any remaining waste products. Therefore, urine concentration by the collecting ducts is the last step in the urine-making process.

Cortisol is a hormone that is secreted by the adrenal cortex in response to ACTH. ACTH, or adrenocorticotropic hormone, is released by the pituitary gland and stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol. Cortisol plays a crucial role in regulating various body functions, including metabolism, immune response, and stress response. Therefore, the statement "cortisol is secreted by the adrenal cortex in response to ACTH" is correct.

The hypothalamus is connected to the neurohypophysis by the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract, not by the portal capillaries. The portal capillaries are responsible for transporting releasing hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland. The hypothalamus is composed of nervous tissue and synthesizes ADH and oxytocin, which are then released by the neurohypophysis.

ketoacidosis (increased H+) stimulates respiratory activity (Kussmaul respirations)

The adrenal medulla is a part of the adrenal gland that is responsible for secreting catecholamines. Catecholamines are a group of hormones that include adrenaline and noradrenaline, which play a role in the body's response to stress. These hormones increase heart rate, blood pressure, and energy levels. The adrenal medulla is not stimulated by ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) and does not secrete steroids. When the adrenal medulla is overactive, it can lead to conditions such as pheochromocytoma, which causes excessive production of catecholamines. Cushing's syndrome, on the other hand, is caused by overactivity of the adrenal cortex, not the adrenal medulla.

A decline in GFR (glomerular filtration rate) does not cause polyuria and glycosuria. Polyuria refers to excessive urination, while glycosuria refers to the presence of glucose in the urine. Both of these conditions are not caused by a decline in GFR, but rather by other factors such as high blood sugar levels in the case of glycosuria. A decline in GFR, on the other hand, can lead to oliguria, which is a decreased urine output.

The correct answer is "contains conductance, resistance, and exchange structures." This answer accurately describes the respiratory tract as it includes various structures that are involved in the process of respiration. Conductance refers to the ability of the respiratory tract to transport air, resistance refers to the opposition encountered by air flow, and exchange structures are responsible for the exchange of gases between the respiratory system and the bloodstream. Therefore, this answer provides a comprehensive description of the respiratory tract and its functions.

acidosis is characterized by decreased pH (less than 7.35). a decreased pH reflects an accumulation of H+ in the blood