Nurs 212a - Pathophys (Pp) - Chapter 2: Cell Response To Stress, Injury, & Aging

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  • 1/38 Questions

    Stewie Griffin begins a workout regimen and subsequently experiences an increase in muscle size, this is:

    • Tissue Atrophy
    • Physiologic hyperplasia
    • Pathologic metaplasia
    • Pathologic dysplasia
    • Physiologic hypertrophy
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About This Quiz

From the textbook Essentials of Pathophysiology by Carol Porth. Second edition.
ISBN-13: 978-0-7817-7087-3
ISBN-10: 0-7817-7087-4

Nurs 212a - Pathophys (Pp) - Chapter 2: Cell Response To Stress, Injury, & Aging - Quiz

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  • 2. 

    Disuse atrophy related to workload is particularly significant in:

    • Cells

    • Muscle tissue

    • Endocrine tissue

    • Liver tissue

    • Dermal tissue

    Correct Answer
    A. Muscle tissue
    Explanation
    Disuse atrophy, particularly in MUSCLE TISSUE, is related to workload. When confronted with a decrease in work demands or adverse environment conditions, most cells are able to revert to a smaller size and lower and more efficient level of functioning that is compatible with survival. As the workload of a cell diminishes, oxygen consumption and protein synthesis decreases. Cells that are atrophied reduce their oxygen consumption and other cellular functions by decreasing the number and size of their organelles and other structures. An extreme example of disuse atrophy is seen in muscles of extremities that have been encased in plaster casts. Because atrophy is ADAPTIVE and REVERSIBLE, muscle size is restored after the cast is removed and muscle use is resumed (p. 30).

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  • 3. 

    Cellular swelling

    • Is a form of reversible cell injury

    • Occurs with impairment of cellular volume regulation

    • Resulting in impaired functioning of sodium/potassium ATPase membrane pump

    • Involves disruption of cell membrane permeability, thus allowing passive entry of sodium into the cell

    • All of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. All of the above
    Explanation
    p. 34

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  • 4. 

    True or False:There is a limit for hypertrophy.

    • True

    • False

    Correct Answer
    A. True
    Explanation
    True. a LIMIT is eventually reach beyond which further enlargement of the tissue mass is no longer able to compensate for the increased work demands. The limiting factors for continued hypertrophy might be related to limitations in blood flow. for example, in hypertension the increased workload required to pump blood against an elevated arterial pressure results in a progressive increase in left ventricular muscle mass (p. 31).

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  • 5. 

    Which is true about infarction necrosis?

    • Artery supplying an organ of the body becomes occulded

    • No supply of blood

    • I.e. tissue death

    • Artery supplying a tissue of the body becomes occulded

    • All of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. All of the above
    Explanation
    p. 40

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  • 6. 

    Hypertrophy

    • Represents a decrease in cell size

    • Represents a decrease in the cell size as well as a decrease in the amount of functioning tissue mass

    • Represents an increase in cell cell

    • Represents an increase in cell size as well as an increase in the amount of functioning tissue mass

    • Is consistent evidence of abnormal pathologic conditions

    Correct Answer
    A. Represents an increase in cell size as well as an increase in the amount of functioning tissue mass
    Explanation
    Hypertrophy represents an INCREASE in CELL SIZE as well as an increase in the amount of FUNCTIONING TISSUE MASS. Also hypertrophy may occur as the result of NORMAL PHYSIOLOGIC or ABNORMAL PATHOLOGIC conditions (p. 31).

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  • 7. 

    Which is not true of hypoxia?

    • Causes the cell to revert to anaerobic metabolism

    • Causes power failure

    • Includes ischemia

    • Causes cellular pH to raise, becoming more basic

    • Causes cell damage

    Correct Answer
    A. Causes cellular pH to raise, becoming more basic
    Explanation
    Hypoxia deprives the cell of oxygen and interrupts OXIDATIVE METABOLISM and the generation of ATP. Can include ischemia; ischemia is characterized by impaired oxygen delivery and impaired removal of metabolic end-products. In contrast to PURE HYPOXIA, which affects the ocygen content of the blood and affects all of the cells in the body, ISCHEMIA commonly affects blood flow through small numbers of blood vessels and produces LOCAL tissue injury. Hypoxia literally causes a power failure in the cell, with widespread effects on the cell's funtional and strucutral components. As oxygen tension in the cell falls, OXIDATIVE METABOLISM ceases, and the cell reverts to ANAEROBIC METABOLISM, using its limited GLYCOGEN stores in an attempt to maintain vital cell functions. Cellular pH FALLS as lactic ACID accumulates in the cell. The nuclear chromatin clumps (p. 35).

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  • 8. 

    True or False:Lois Griffin has suffered broken legs related to an injury induced by her son, Stewie Griffin. Her legs have been encased in plaster casts. Consequently, she has suffered permanent disuse atrophy to the muscles encased in the cast. Now her mission is to obtain Joe’s wheelchair and to seek revenge on Stewie

    • True

    • False

    Correct Answer
    A. False
    Explanation
    An extreme example of disuse atrophy is seen in muscles of extremities that have been encased in plaster casts. Because atrophy is ADAPTIVE and REVERSIBLE, muscle size is restored after the cast is removed and muscle use is resumed (p. 30).

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  • 9. 

    True or False:Once the cell differentiating genes have been exposed to the alterating mechanisms (and undergone adaptation cellular responses that alters the differentiating genes) it cannot be reversed.

    • True

    • False

    Correct Answer
    A. False
    Explanation
    FALSE. Once the stimulus for adaptation is removed, the effect on expression of the differentiating genes is removed and the cell RESUMES its previous state of specialized function. Whether adaptive cellular changes are normal or abnormal depends on whether the response was mediated by an appropriate stimulus. NORMAL ADAPTIVE RESPONSES occur in response to need and an appropriate stimulus. After the need has been removed, the adaptive response ceases (p. 30).

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  • 10. 

     True or False: Cellular atrophy also called organ atrophy

    • True

    • False

    Correct Answer
    A. False
    Explanation
    f. It is also important to distinguish cellular atrophy from organ atrophy that is due to irreversible loss of cells. For example, atrophy of the brain in Alzheimer disease is secondary to extensive cell death, and the size of the organ cannot be restored (p. 30).

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  • 11. 

    Which of the following is NOT true about metaplasia?

    • It is irreversible

    • When one adult cell type (epithelial or mesenchymal) is replaced by another cell time but never oversteps the boundaries of the primary groups of tissue

    • Is usually a response to chronic irritation and inflammation

    • Allows cells that are better able to survive under circumstances in which a more fragile cell type might succumb.

    • Is thought to involve the reprogramming of undifferentiated stem cells that are present in the tissue undergoing the metaplastic changes

    Correct Answer
    A. It is irreversible
    Explanation
    METAPLASIA represents a REVERSIBLE change in which one adult cell type (epithelial or mesenchymal) is replaced by another adult cell type. Metaplasia is thought to involve the reprogramming of UNDIFFERENTIATED STEM CELLS that are present in the tissue undergoing the metaplastic changes. Metaplasia usually occurs in response to chronic irritation and inflammation and allows for substitution of cells that are better able to survive under circumstances in which a more fragile cell type might succumb. However, the conversion of cell types never oversteps the boundaries of the primary groupus of tissue (e.g. one type of epithelial cell may be converted to another type of epithelial cell, but not to a connective tissue cell) (p. 32).

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  • 12. 

    Which of the following is true about caseous necrosis?

    • Has a soft, cheeselike center

    • Associated with tubercular lesions

    • Ultimately resulting from immune mechanisms

    • All of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. All of the above
    Explanation
    p. 40

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  • 13. 

    Apoptosis is:

    • A form of cellular build up

    • Equated with cell vitality

    • Is initiated by mitochondrial or extrinsic pathways

    • Can be divided into wet or dry apoptosis

    • Is an abnormal process

    Correct Answer
    A. Is initiated by mitochondrial or extrinsic pathways
    Explanation
    CELL DEATH can involve apoptosis or necrosis. APOPTOTIC CELL DEATH involves controlled cell DESTRUCTION and is involved in NORMAL cell deletion and renewal. Apoptic cell death, which is equated with cell suicide, eliminates cells that are worn out, have been produced in excess, have developed improperly, or have genetic damage. It also provides the space needed for cell replacement. Initiation of apoptosis occurs principally by sinals from 2 pathways: INTRINSIC (aka mitochondrial pathway) or EXTRINSIC (receptor-initated) pathway.

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  • 14. 

    Which of the following is not a general cause of cell atrophy

    • Reduced functional demand

    • Loss of trophic stimuli

    • Aging

    • Persistent cell injury

    • None of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. None of the above
    Explanation
    All of the answers are true. The general causes of cell atrophy include disuse and reduced functional demand, loss of trophic stimuli, insufficient nutrients, decreased blood flow, persistent cell injury, and aging (p. 30).

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  • 15. 

    Which of the following statements is not true?

    • APT depletion is an effect of injurious agents

    • APT depletion is associated with hypoxia and chemical (toxic) cell injury

    • Earliest effects of ATP depletion is acute cellular swelling

    • The ischemia that occurs is painful and irreversible

    • When ATP depletion occurs, injury to the lysosomal membranes results in leakage of destructive lysosomal enzymes into the cell; this can be measured with lab tests

    Correct Answer
    A. The ischemia that occurs is painful and irreversible
    Explanation
    In ATP depletion and decreased ATP synthesis, after cellular swelling occurs, the cellular changes caused by ischemia are reversible if oxygenation is restored. However, if the oxygen supply is not restored, there is a continued loss of essential enzymes, proteins, and ribonucleic acid through the hyperpermeable membrane. Injury to the lysosomal membrane results in leakage of destructive lysosomal enzymes into the cytoplasm and enzymatic digestion of cell components (p. 38).

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  • 16. 

    Hyperplasia:

    • Refers to an increase in the size of cells in an organ or tissue

    • Occurs in nerve cells, skeletal muscle cells, and cardiac muscle cells

    • Occurs in response to an appropriate stimulus and is unable to be controlled or stopped

    • Occurs in tissues with cells that are capable of mitotic division

    • All of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. Occurs in tissues with cells that are capable of mitotic division
    Explanation
    Hyperplasia refers to an increase in the NUMBER of cells in an organ or tissue. It occrs in tissues with cells that are capable of MITOTIC DIVISION, such as the epidermis, intestinal epithelium, and glandular tissue. Nerve cells and skeletal and cardiac muscle cells do NOT divide and therefore have NO capacity for hyerplastic growth. There is evidence that hyperplasia involves activation of genes controlling cell proliferation. As with other normal adaptive cellular responses, hyperplasia is a controlled process that occurs in response to an appropriate STIMULUS and CEASES after the stimulus has been removed (p. 31).

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  • 17. 

    Which of the following is untrue about the physical agents which cause cell injury?

    • In regards to electrical damage, the greater the skin resistance, the the less amount of local skin burn, and the less the resistance, the greater is the deep and systemic effects

    • Biologic agents include viruses and bacteria

    • Mechanical forces occur when the body impacts with another object, which can split and tear tissue, injury blood vessels, and disrupt blood flow

    • Low intensity heat causes cell injury by inducing vascular injury, accelerating cell metabolism, inactivating temperature-sensitive enzymes, and disrupting the cell membrane

    • Extreme cold increases blood viscosity and induces vasconstriction, may cause hypoxic tissue injury, and if freezing, can cause ice crystal formation and vasoconstriction.

    Correct Answer
    A. In regards to electrical damage, the greater the skin resistance, the the less amount of local skin burn, and the less the resistance, the greater is the deep and systemic effects
    Explanation
    All are true except the information regarding electrical damage. It is generally believed that the GREATER the skin resistance, the GREATER is the amount of local skin burn, and the LESS the resistance, the GREATER are the deep and SYSTEMIC effects. Thick, dry skin is more resistance to the flow of electricity than thin, wet skin (p. 36).

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  • 18. 

    Which of the following is gas gangrene?

    • Toxins and H2S bubbles present

    • Lack of venous flow allows fluid to accumulate in tissue

    • Tissue tends to coagulate

    • A and B

    • All of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. Toxins and H2S bubbles present
    Explanation
    Gas gangrene is due to Clostridium infection which produces toxins and H2S bubbles (lecture)

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  • 19. 

    Which of the following is not true of dysplasia

    • Is a cancer

    • Is cells that vary in size, shape, and appearance

    • Involves sequential mutations in proliferating cells

    • In many cases, reverts to former form and function

    • None of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. Is a cancer
    Explanation
    Dysplasia is strongly implicated as a PRECURSOR of cancer. SEVERE DYSPLASIA is considered an indication for aggressive preventative therapy to remove the underlying cause or to surgically remove the affected tissue. However, it is important to point out that dysplasia is an adaptive process and as such does NOT NECESSARILY LEAD TO CANCER. In many cases, the dysplatic cells REVERT to their former structure and function (p. 32).

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  • 20. 

    Which of the following is not true about intracellular accumulation of abnormal proteins?

    • Defects in protein folds can lead to loss of cell function

    • Can result in neurodegerative disorders, including Alzheimer disease and Parkinson disease

    • Aggregations of abnormally folded proteins can be a result of genetic mutations, aging, or unknown environmental insults

    • The deviant protein structure sole cause is from an inherited mutation that alters a normal amino acid sequence

    • Consequences of misfolded proteins include extracellular deposition of aggregated proteins, retention of secretory proteins, or formation of toxic proteins that accumulate in the cell

    Correct Answer
    A. The deviant protein structure sole cause is from an inherited mutation that alters a normal amino acid sequence
    Explanation
    The deviant protein structure MAY RESULT from an inherited mutation that alters a normal amino acid sequence OR may reflect an acquired DEFECT in protein folding (p. 32).

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  • 21. 

    Atrophy from persistent cell injury is

    • Most often caused by chronic inflammation usually from prolonged viral or bacterial infections

    • Also known as disuse atrophy

    • Most often caused by chronic inflammation that can be from immunologic and granulomatous disorders

    • A and B

    • A and C

    Correct Answer
    A. A and C
    Explanation
    PERSISTENT CELL INJURY is most commonly caused by chronic inflammation associated with prolonged viral or bacterial infections. Chronic inflammation may also occur in other conditions, such as IMMUNOLOGIC and GRANULOMATOUS disorders (p. 30-31).

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  • 22. 

    As individuals age (we’re talking very old),

    • Most organs of the body, especially the brain and heart, decrease in size

    • Most organs of the body, except the brain and heart, decrease in size

    • Most organs of the body, especially the brain and heart, experience atrophy

    • A and B

    • A and C

    Correct Answer
    A. A and C
    Explanation
    One of the hallmarks of AGING, particularly in non-replicating cells such as the BRAIN AND HEART, is cell atrophy. There is a DECREASE in the size of most body organs. The size of the brain is invariably decreased, and in the very old, the size of the heart may be greatly diminished.

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  • 23. 

    Which of the following is not true of intracellular accumulation of glycogen?

    • It involves enzymes

    • Can be a genetic disorder

    • Most common form is von Gierke disease

    • When an enzyme is not present to break down glycogen into glucose, glycogen accumulates

    • None of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. None of the above
    Explanation
    All of the above are true (p. 32).

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  • 24. 

    Which is not true of impaired calcium homeostasis?

    • Calcium functions as a messenger

    • Ischemia and certai toxins lead to an increase in cytosolic calicum

    • Intracellular calcium is kept at a higher concentration than extracellular calcium

    • Impaired calcium homeostasis activates enzymes including: phospholipases, proteases, ATPases, and endonucleases

    • None of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. Intracellular calcium is kept at a higher concentration than extracellular calcium
    Explanation
    Normally, intracellular calcium levels are kept extremely LOW compared with extracellular levels. These low intracellular levels are maintained by energy-dependent, membrane-associated calcium/magnesium ATPase exchange systems. Ischemia and certain toxins lead to an increase in cytosolic calcium. The increased calcium level activates a number of enzymes with potentially damaging effects. The enzymes include the phospholipases (damaging phospholipids in cell membrane), proteases (damage cytoskeleton and membrane proteins), ATPase (breaks down ATP), and endonucleases (fragments chromatin) (p. 39).

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  • 25. 

    Which is not true of free radical injury?

    • Arises from an atom that has a two unpaired electrons

    • Free radicals are foreign to the body

    • Free radicals can be best controlled if blood flow has been interrupted

    • Defenses include Vitamin K, Vitamin D, and Vitamin B

    • All of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. All of the above
    Explanation
    None of the above are true. Many injurious agents exert their damaging effects through a reactive chemical species called a FREE RADICAL. A free radical is a highly reactive chemical species arising from an atom that has a SINGLE unpaired electron in an OUTER orbit. In this state, the radical is highly unstable and can enter into reactions with cellular constituents, particularly key molecules in cell membranes and nucleic acids. Free radical is a BYPRODUCT of many NORMAL cellular reactions in the body, including energy generation, breakdown of lipids and proteins, and inflammatory processes. Free radical formation is a particular THREAT to tissues in which the blood flow has been interrupted and then restored. During the period of interrupted flow, the intracellular mechanisms that control free radicals are inactivated or damaged. When blood flow is restored, the cell is suddenly confronted with an excess of free radicals that it cannot control. DEFENSES include vitamin E, Vitamin A (retinoids), and Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) (p. 38-39).

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  • 26. 

    Which of the following is not an intracellular accumulation of a pigment?

    • Tattoos

    • Lipofuscin

    • Carbon

    • Lead poisoning

    • None of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. None of the above
    Explanation
    All are true. One of the most common exogenous pigments is carbon in the form of coal dust. Lipofuscin is endogenous pigments (yellow-brown pigments). Lead poisoning is exogenous. Tattoos are exogenous pigments (insoluble pigments introduced into the skin, where they are engulfed by macrophages and persist for a lifetime) (p. 33).

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  • 27. 

    Which of the following is wet gangrene?

    • Lack of venous flow leading to accumulation in tissue

    • High chance of infection

    • Resulting from Clostridium infection

    • A and B

    • All of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. A and B
    Explanation
    Clostridium infection is related to gas gangrene.

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  • 28. 

    Which is true about liquefaction necrosis?

    • Acidosis develops and denatures the enzymatic and strucutral proteins in a cell

    • Has a soft, cheeselike center

    • Related to the immune system

    • The cell dies but the catalytic enzymes are not destroyed

    • All of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. The cell dies but the catalytic enzymes are not destroyed
    Explanation
    p. 40

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  • 29. 

    Which is not true about pathologic calcification?

    • Is known as dystrophic calcification when it occurs in normal tissue

    • Involves the abnormal tissue deposition of primarily magnesium salts, with smaller amounts of iron and other minerals

    • Is known as metastatic calcification when it occurs in dead or dying tissue

    • All of the above are false

    • None of the above are false

    Correct Answer
    A. All of the above are false
    Explanation
    Pathologic calcification involves the abnormal tissue deposition of CALCIUM SALTS, together with smaller amounts of iron, magnesium, and other minerals. It is known as DYSTROPHIC CALCIFICATION when it occurs in dead or dying tissue. It is known as METASTATIC CALCIFICATION when it occurs in normal tissue (p. 33).

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  • 30. 

    Which is true about Icterus?

    • Is an yellow-brown pigment

    • Results from insoluble pigments introduced into the skin

    • It is an exogenous pigments

    • Involves carbon

    • None of above

    Correct Answer
    A. None of above
    Explanation
    Icterus, also called JAUNDICE, is a YELLOW discolouration of tissue caused by the retention of BILIRUBIN, and ENDOGENOUS bile pigment. This condition may result from increased bilirubin production from red blood cell destruction, obstruction of bile passage into the intestine, or toxic disease that affect the liver's ability to remove bilirubin from the blood (p. 33).

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  • 31. 

    True or False:Hypertension can lead to compensatory hypertrophy.

    • True

    • False

    Correct Answer
    A. False
    Explanation
    False. PATHOLOGIC HYPERTROPHY occurs as a result of disease conditions and may be adaptive or compensatory. Examples of ADAPTIVE HYPERTROPHY are the thickening of the urinary bladder from long-continued obstruction of urinary outflow and the MYOCARDIAL HYPERTROPHY that results from valvular heart disease or HYPERTENSION. COMPENSATORY HYPERTROPHY is the enlargement of a remaining organ or tissue after a portion has been surgically removed or rendered inactive. For instance, if one kidney is removed, the remaining kidney enlarges to compensate for the loss (p. 31).

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  • 32. 

    Which is true about lead poisoning?

    • Lead poisoning is considered a biologic agent

    • It has the ability to compete with calcium for incorporation into bones

    • Manifestations of lead toxicity include anemia

    • Lead crosses the umbilical cord

    • All are true

    Correct Answer
    A. Manifestations of lead toxicity include anemia
    Explanation
    LEAD is a particularly toxic metal. Small amounts accumulate to reach toxic levels. Lead crosses the PLACENTA, exposing the fetus to lead levels comparable with those of the mother. The toxicity of lead is related to its multiple biochemical effects. It has the ABILITY to inactivate enzymes, compete with calcium for incorporation into bone, and interfere with nerve transmission and brain development. The MAJOR TARGETS are the red blood cells, the gastrointestinal tract, the kidneys, and the nervous system. Some of the MANIFESTATIONS of lead toxicity include anemia, acute abdominal pain, signs of kidney damage, and cognitive deficits and neuropathies resulting from demyelination of cerebral and cerebellar white matter and death of cortical nerve cells (p. 36).

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  • 33. 

    Which of the following is dry gangrene?

    • Lack of arterial blood supply

    • Present venous flow

    • Tissue coagulation

    • A and B

    • All of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. All of the above
    Explanation
    Dry gangrene is a condition characterized by tissue death due to lack of arterial blood supply, which leads to tissue coagulation. It occurs when there is no venous flow present to remove waste products. Therefore, all of the given options (A, B, and C) are correct and contribute to the development of dry gangrene.

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  • 34. 

    Which is true about coagulation necrosis?

    • Acidosis develops and denatures the enzymatic and structural proteins in the cell

    • I.e. tissue death

    • Associated with tubercular lesions

    • Resulting form immune mechanisms

    • All of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. Acidosis develops and denatures the enzymatic and structural proteins in the cell
    Explanation
    p. 40

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  • 35. 

    Fatty changes

    • In obese people, the organs most affected with fatty changes are in the spleen and the digestive tract

    • Small vacuoles of fat are dispersed in the nucleus

    • Formation of of blebs on the plasma membrane

    • All of the above

    • None of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. None of the above
    Explanation
    Fatty changes are linked to intracellular accumulation of fat. When fatty changes occur, small vacuoles of fat disperse throughout the CYTOPLASM. The process is more OMINOUS than cellular swelling, and although it is REVERSIBLE, it usually indicates MORE severe injury. These fatty changes may occur because normal cells are presented with an increased fat load or because injured cells are unable to metabolize the fat properly. In obese people, fatty infiltrates often occur within and between the cells of the LIVER and HEART because of an increased fat load.

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  • 36. 

    There are numerous molecular mechanisms mediating cellular adaptation. These mechanisms depend largely on signals transmitted by chemical messengers that exert their effects by altering gene function. At the cellular levels, which genes are generally affected by said mechanisms?

    • "Housekeeping" genes

    • Genes that are necessary for the normal function of a cell

    • Genes that determine the differentiating characteristics of a particular cell type

    • Genes that change size and form

    • All of the above

    Correct Answer
    A. Genes that determine the differentiating characteristics of a particular cell type
    Explanation
    In general, the genes expressed in all cells fall into two categories: "housekeeping" genes that are necessary for the normal function of a cell, and genes that determine the differentiating characteristics of a particular cell type. In many adaptive cellular responses, the EXPRESSION OF THE DIFFERENTIATION GENES IS ALTERED, whereas that of the housekeeping genes remains unaffected (p. 29).

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  • 37. 

    Which tissue is hypertrophy most commonly seen in?

    • Cardiac

    • Lymphatic

    • Skeletal muscle

    • A and B

    • A and C

    Correct Answer
    A. A and B
    Explanation
    Hypertrophy results from an increased workload imposed on an organ or body part and is commonly seen in CARDIAC and SKELETAL MUSCLE tissue, which cannot adapt to an increase in workload though MITOTIC DIVISION and formation of more cells (p. 31).

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  • 38. 

    Trophic signals

    • Are produced exclusively from the nervous system

    • Denervation atrophy is from a loss of central nervous system stimuli

    • Lack of endocrine stimulation produces a form of disuse atrophy

    • A and B

    • B and C

    Correct Answer
    A. Lack of endocrine stimulation produces a form of disuse atrophy
    Explanation
    The function of many cells depend on trophic stimulation, such as those transmitted by the NERVOUS SYSTEM and ENDOCRINE SYSTEM. DENERVATION ATROPHY is a form of atrophy in paralyzed limbs that results from loss of NERVOUS SYSTEM STIMULI. Lack of ENDOCRINE STIMULATION produces a form of DISUSE atrophy. In women, the loss of estrogen stimulation during menopause results in atrophic changes to the reproductive organs (p. 30).

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