Neuropharmocology Exam #1, Make-up

Dopamine is the neurotransmitter responsible for reward and reinforcement in the body. It plays a crucial role in regulating motivation, pleasure, and the brain's reward system. Dopamine is involved in various physiological and psychological processes, including movement, mood, cognition, and addiction. It is released in response to pleasurable experiences and reinforces behaviors that lead to rewards. The abbreviation "DA" is commonly used to represent dopamine.

The liver is responsible for the metabolism of substances in the body. It plays a crucial role in breaking down and processing nutrients, drugs, and toxins. It produces bile, which helps in the digestion and absorption of fats. The liver also detoxifies harmful substances and stores essential vitamins and minerals. Additionally, it regulates blood sugar levels and produces proteins necessary for blood clotting. Overall, the liver is vital for maintaining the body's metabolic processes and ensuring proper functioning.

Drugs administered orally are absorbed mainly in the capillaries of the small intestine. The small intestine has a large surface area due to its long length and numerous folds, which allows for efficient absorption of drugs. Additionally, the small intestine is lined with microvilli, which further increase the surface area available for absorption. The capillaries in the small intestine have thin walls and a large number of pores, allowing for easy passage of drugs into the bloodstream. Therefore, drugs administered orally are typically absorbed in the small intestine, making it the major site of absorption for orally administered drugs.

Intravenous (IV) administration is considered the most potent route of drug administration because it delivers the medication directly into the bloodstream. By bypassing the digestive system and liver metabolism, IV administration allows for rapid and complete absorption of the drug, resulting in a quick and powerful therapeutic effect. This route is commonly used for medications that require immediate action or high bioavailability. IV administration also offers precise control over dosage and allows for continuous infusion if needed.

The Blood-Brain Barrier is a protective barrier that separates the blood vessels in the brain from the surrounding tissue. It allows fat-soluble molecules to pass through because they can dissolve in the lipid bilayer of the barrier. On the other hand, it keeps water-soluble molecules out because they cannot easily pass through the lipid bilayer. This selective permeability of the Blood-Brain Barrier helps maintain the delicate balance of substances in the brain and protects it from potentially harmful molecules.

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that is associated with regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and sexual functioning. It plays a crucial role in maintaining emotional well-being and is often referred to as the "feel-good" neurotransmitter. Additionally, it helps regulate sleep patterns, appetite, and sexual desire. The alternative names, 5HT and 5-HT, are commonly used to refer to serotonin in scientific literature and research.

GABA is a neurotransmitter that affects anxiety in the body. It is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps to regulate and calm the brain, reducing feelings of anxiety and promoting relaxation. When GABA levels are low, it can lead to increased anxiety and feelings of unease. Therefore, the correct answer is anxiety.

If you answered myelin sheath, that is what COVERS the axon...

Heroin and other opiates originate from the poppy plant. The poppy plant is known for its production of opium, which is then processed to create drugs like heroin. The opium is extracted from the seed pods of the poppy plant, and it contains various alkaloids, including morphine, codeine, and thebaine, which are used in the production of opiates. The poppy plant has been cultivated for centuries for its medicinal and recreational properties, and its derivatives have powerful analgesic and sedative effects.

Reuptake is the process in which a neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft and then taken back up into the original neuron. This recycling of neurotransmitters allows for efficient communication between neurons and helps regulate the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain.

The part of the diagram that is colored green is the nucleus.

Fentanyl is the strongest painkiller in the opiate family. It is a synthetic opioid that is used to treat severe pain, particularly in cases where other pain medications have proven to be ineffective. Fentanyl is highly potent and can be up to 100 times stronger than morphine. It works by binding to opioid receptors in the brain, blocking pain signals and producing a powerful analgesic effect. Due to its potency, fentanyl is typically reserved for patients with chronic or breakthrough pain, and it is often administered in the form of patches, lozenges, or injections under strict medical supervision.

People with ADHD may exhibit opposite drug reactions, meaning that the medication intended to calm them down and improve focus may have the opposite effect and make them more hyperactive or agitated. This is because ADHD is a complex disorder that affects the brain's executive functions, including attention and impulse control. The brain chemistry of individuals with ADHD is different, and certain medications may interact with these differences in unexpected ways. Therefore, it is important for healthcare professionals to carefully monitor and adjust medication dosages for individuals with ADHD to find the most effective treatment.

Afghanistan is the correct answer because it is known to be the largest producer of heroin in the world, accounting for approximately 92% of global production. The country's geographical location, along with its unstable political situation and lack of effective law enforcement, has made it an ideal environment for the cultivation and production of opium poppies, which are used to manufacture heroin. The vast majority of the world's heroin supply originates from Afghanistan, making it a significant contributor to the global drug trade.

Morphine is the correct answer because it is a pain-killing medication that can be refined to produce heroin. Heroin is derived from morphine through a chemical process, making it a more potent and addictive drug. Opium is the source of morphine, but it is not directly refined into heroin. Fentanyl is a synthetic opioid that is also used as a painkiller, but it is not the source of heroin. Percocet is a combination medication that contains oxycodone, another opioid, but it is not directly related to the production of heroin.

Cannabis was considered one of the five "sacred plants" in the Indian Vegas around 1500 BC. This suggests that the plant held significant religious or spiritual importance in ancient Indian culture. The use of the term "sacred plants" implies that these plants were revered and possibly used in religious rituals or ceremonies. Cannabis has a long history of use in various cultures for its psychoactive properties, medicinal benefits, and spiritual purposes, making it a likely candidate for such a designation in ancient India.

Formication is the correct answer because it refers to the sensation of bugs crawling on or under the skin, which is a common symptom experienced by cocaine users. This sensation is a result of the stimulant effects of cocaine on the central nervous system, leading to altered perceptions and hallucinations. The term "formication" is derived from the Latin word "formica," meaning ants, as the sensation is often compared to the crawling sensation caused by ants.

Hepatitis C, also known as Hep C, is a liver disease that is commonly developed by 50-90% of all intravenous (IV) drug users. This disease has the potential to progress to cirrhosis, a condition characterized by scarring of the liver.

Caffeine is the correct answer because it was discovered in Ethiopia around 850 AD. Caffeine is a legal stimulant that is commonly found in coffee, tea, and other beverages. It is known for its ability to increase alertness and improve focus. The discovery of caffeine in Ethiopia is significant because the region is known for its coffee production, and coffee beans are one of the primary sources of caffeine.

Chloride ions (Cl-) are responsible for decreasing cell firing. When chloride ions enter the cell, they can hyperpolarize the cell membrane, making it more difficult for the cell to generate an action potential and therefore decreasing cell firing.

The given answer, Central Nervous System, is correct because it is the main control center of the body's nervous system. It consists of the brain and spinal cord, which are responsible for processing and transmitting information throughout the body. The "New Brain" and "Old Brain" mentioned in the question are not specific terms used in neuroscience, but they could be referring to different regions or structures within the brain that are part of the Central Nervous System.

The correct answer is "Half-life." Half-life refers to the time it takes for the amount of a substance undergoing decay to be reduced by half. It is commonly used in the context of radioactive decay, but can also apply to other processes. In the given explanation, it is mentioned that half-life is the term that describes how long a substance remains active in the body. This suggests that the substance being referred to has a specific duration of effectiveness or presence in the body before it is reduced by half.

The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for maintaining homeostasis in the body. It works to counterbalance the effects of the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for the body's fight-or-flight response. The parasympathetic nervous system conserves energy and promotes rest and digestion. It slows the heart rate, increases digestion and salivation, and promotes relaxation. By bringing the body back to a state of balance, the parasympathetic nervous system helps to maintain overall health and well-being.

The part of the diagram that is colored purple is the Dendrites and Terminal Buttons.

Benzos and Benzodiazepines are both commonly used terms to refer to a class of sedative medications. These medications are widely prescribed in the US for their calming and relaxing effects. They work by enhancing the activity of a neurotransmitter called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain, which helps to reduce anxiety and promote sleep. Due to their effectiveness, Benzodiazepines are frequently prescribed for various conditions such as anxiety disorders, insomnia, and seizures. Therefore, the statement that "Benzos/Benzodiazepines" is the most widely prescribed sedative in the US is accurate.

The legal blood alcohol concentration (BAC) in the US is .08. This means that if a person's BAC is .08 or higher, they are considered legally intoxicated. This limit is set to ensure the safety of individuals and the public while operating a vehicle. Driving with a BAC of .08 or higher can impair a person's motor skills, reaction time, and judgment, increasing the risk of accidents and injuries. It is important to refrain from driving if you have consumed alcohol and to find alternative means of transportation.

Stimulant use affects the neurotransmitters Epinephrine and Norepinephrine. Stimulants increase the release and inhibit the reuptake of these neurotransmitters, leading to an increase in their levels in the brain. Epinephrine and Norepinephrine are involved in the body's stress response, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness. Stimulant drugs like amphetamines and cocaine enhance the effects of these neurotransmitters, leading to increased energy, focus, and euphoria.

The invention of the hypodermic needle in 1855 revolutionized drug use and abuse. Prior to its invention, drugs were typically administered orally or topically, limiting their effectiveness and control. The hypodermic needle allowed for direct injection of drugs into the bloodstream, providing a more immediate and potent effect. This not only improved the delivery of medications but also increased the potential for drug abuse and addiction. The hypodermic needle remains a crucial medical tool today, used for various purposes including vaccinations, drug administration, and blood sampling.

Ritalin is classified as an amphetamine congener. This means that it is a drug that is structurally similar to amphetamines, but it may have slightly different effects or properties. Amphetamine congeners are often used to treat conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. Ritalin specifically is commonly prescribed for ADHD, as it helps to increase focus and reduce impulsivity and hyperactivity.