Motor Learning Final Exam

1. An important performance characteristic associated with learning is that the person becomes increasingly more capable of adapting performance of the skill to new performance contexts and situations.

True

False

The statement is true because as a person learns a skill, they become more capable of adapting their performance to different contexts and situations. This means that they can apply their knowledge and abilities in a variety of scenarios, making them more versatile and flexible in their performance. As they gain experience and practice, they develop a deeper understanding of the skill and how to apply it effectively in different situations, leading to improved performance overall.

Explanation

The statement is true because as a person learns a skill, they become more capable of adapting their performance to different contexts and situations. This means that they can apply their knowledge and abilities in a variety of scenarios, making them more versatile and flexible in their performance. As they gain experience and practice, they develop a deeper understanding of the skill and how to apply it effectively in different situations, leading to improved performance overall.

2. The encoding specificity principle predicts that practicing basketball free-throws as they would be shot in an actual game increases the probability of successful free-throw shooting in a game.

True

False

The encoding specificity principle suggests that the context in which information is learned is important for later retrieval. In the case of practicing basketball free-throws, if the practice closely resembles the conditions of an actual game, such as shooting from the same distance, using the same technique, and under similar pressure, it is more likely to enhance performance during a real game. This is because the brain encodes and retrieves information better when the context matches. Therefore, the statement that practicing free-throws as they would be shot in an actual game increases the probability of successful free-throw shooting in a game is true.

Explanation

The encoding specificity principle suggests that the context in which information is learned is important for later retrieval. In the case of practicing basketball free-throws, if the practice closely resembles the conditions of an actual game, such as shooting from the same distance, using the same technique, and under similar pressure, it is more likely to enhance performance during a real game. This is because the brain encodes and retrieves information better when the context matches. Therefore, the statement that practicing free-throws as they would be shot in an actual game increases the probability of successful free-throw shooting in a game is true.

3. Before you determine whether to use a whole or part strategy to practice a skill, it is important to first do a task analysis to assess the complexity and organization characteristics of the skill.

True

False

The statement suggests that before deciding whether to use a whole or part strategy to practice a skill, it is crucial to conduct a task analysis to evaluate the complexity and organization characteristics of the skill. This implies that understanding the intricacies and structure of the skill is essential in determining the most effective approach to practice. Therefore, the answer "True" is correct as it aligns with the information provided in the statement.

Explanation

The statement suggests that before deciding whether to use a whole or part strategy to practice a skill, it is crucial to conduct a task analysis to evaluate the complexity and organization characteristics of the skill. This implies that understanding the intricacies and structure of the skill is essential in determining the most effective approach to practice. Therefore, the answer "True" is correct as it aligns with the information provided in the statement.

4. Before you determine whether to use a whole or part strategy to practice a skill, it is important to first do a task analysis to assess the complexity and organization characteristics of the skill.

True

False

To determine whether to use a whole or part strategy to practice a skill, it is important to first do a task analysis. This involves assessing the complexity and organization characteristics of the skill. By analyzing the task, one can understand its components and determine if it is better to practice the skill as a whole or break it down into smaller parts. Therefore, the statement is true.

Explanation

To determine whether to use a whole or part strategy to practice a skill, it is important to first do a task analysis. This involves assessing the complexity and organization characteristics of the skill. By analyzing the task, one can understand its components and determine if it is better to practice the skill as a whole or break it down into smaller parts. Therefore, the statement is true.

5. The reason we have difficulty tapping our heads and rubbing our stomachs at the same time with our two hands is that our motor control system is organized in such a way that our two hands prefer to move in the same way at the same time.

True

False

Our motor control system is organized in a way that our two hands prefer to move in the same way at the same time. This means that when we try to tap our heads and rub our stomachs at the same time, our hands tend to synchronize their movements instead of performing different actions simultaneously. This coordination issue makes it difficult for us to perform these two tasks simultaneously, leading to the statement being true.

Explanation

Our motor control system is organized in a way that our two hands prefer to move in the same way at the same time. This means that when we try to tap our heads and rub our stomachs at the same time, our hands tend to synchronize their movements instead of performing different actions simultaneously. This coordination issue makes it difficult for us to perform these two tasks simultaneously, leading to the statement being true.

6. Research has demonstrated that mental imagery ability is an individual-difference variable that influences the success of mental practice.

True

False

The given statement is true. Research has shown that mental imagery ability, which refers to the ability to create vivid mental images, is a personal characteristic that varies from individual to individual. This ability has been found to have a significant impact on the effectiveness of mental practice. Mental practice involves mentally rehearsing or visualizing a task or skill without physically performing it. Those with higher mental imagery ability tend to have more success with mental practice, as they are able to create more detailed and realistic mental representations of the desired outcome.

Explanation

The given statement is true. Research has shown that mental imagery ability, which refers to the ability to create vivid mental images, is a personal characteristic that varies from individual to individual. This ability has been found to have a significant impact on the effectiveness of mental practice. Mental practice involves mentally rehearsing or visualizing a task or skill without physically performing it. Those with higher mental imagery ability tend to have more success with mental practice, as they are able to create more detailed and realistic mental representations of the desired outcome.

7. Augmented feedback that tells a beginner those aspects of the performance that were correct can serve a motivational role to encourage the person.

True

False

Providing augmented feedback to beginners that highlights the aspects of their performance that were correct can serve as a motivational tool. This feedback helps to encourage the person by acknowledging their correct actions and reinforcing their progress. By focusing on what they did right, beginners are more likely to stay motivated and continue working towards improvement.

Explanation

Providing augmented feedback to beginners that highlights the aspects of their performance that were correct can serve as a motivational tool. This feedback helps to encourage the person by acknowledging their correct actions and reinforcing their progress. By focusing on what they did right, beginners are more likely to stay motivated and continue working towards improvement.

8. The guideline for implementing practice variability for the learning of open skills is to vary both regulatory and nonregulatory conditions.

True

False

The statement is true because practice variability is important for learning open skills, which are skills that are performed in a constantly changing environment. By varying both regulatory conditions (such as the rules or equipment used) and nonregulatory conditions (such as the weather or opponents), learners can develop the ability to adapt and adjust their skills in different situations. This helps to enhance their performance and effectiveness in real-world scenarios.

Explanation

The statement is true because practice variability is important for learning open skills, which are skills that are performed in a constantly changing environment. By varying both regulatory conditions (such as the rules or equipment used) and nonregulatory conditions (such as the weather or opponents), learners can develop the ability to adapt and adjust their skills in different situations. This helps to enhance their performance and effectiveness in real-world scenarios.

9. The Elaboration Hypothesis states that contextual interference improves learning because as learners create new skill variations during random practice they create a more distinct memory representation of the skill.

True

False

The Elaboration Hypothesis suggests that contextual interference, which refers to the random practice of creating new skill variations, enhances learning. This is because when learners engage in random practice, they are forced to create a more distinct memory representation of the skill. This distinct memory representation helps in better retention and recall of the skill, leading to improved learning outcomes. Therefore, the statement is true.

Explanation

The Elaboration Hypothesis suggests that contextual interference, which refers to the random practice of creating new skill variations, enhances learning. This is because when learners engage in random practice, they are forced to create a more distinct memory representation of the skill. This distinct memory representation helps in better retention and recall of the skill, leading to improved learning outcomes. Therefore, the statement is true.

10. The term practice variability refers to the variety of movement and context characteristics the learner experiences while practicing a skill.

True

False

Practice variability refers to the variety of movement and context characteristics that a learner experiences while practicing a skill. This means that during practice, the learner is exposed to different variations and conditions of the skill, which helps in enhancing their adaptability and ability to perform the skill in different situations. By experiencing and practicing in different contexts, the learner becomes more versatile and capable of applying the skill effectively in real-life scenarios. Therefore, the statement "True" is correct.

Explanation

Practice variability refers to the variety of movement and context characteristics that a learner experiences while practicing a skill. This means that during practice, the learner is exposed to different variations and conditions of the skill, which helps in enhancing their adaptability and ability to perform the skill in different situations. By experiencing and practicing in different contexts, the learner becomes more versatile and capable of applying the skill effectively in real-life scenarios. Therefore, the statement "True" is correct.

11. Telling a beginning golf student that the backswing should stop when the club is pointing at a certain clockface hour is an example of attaching a meaningful verbal label to a movement that must be remembered.

True

False

The statement suggests that when teaching a beginner golfer, it is helpful to provide a specific reference point for the backswing by using a clockface hour. This helps the student remember the correct stopping point for the backswing. By attaching a meaningful verbal label to the movement, it becomes easier for the student to understand and replicate the correct technique. Therefore, the statement is true.

Explanation

The statement suggests that when teaching a beginner golfer, it is helpful to provide a specific reference point for the backswing by using a clockface hour. This helps the student remember the correct stopping point for the backswing. By attaching a meaningful verbal label to the movement, it becomes easier for the student to understand and replicate the correct technique. Therefore, the statement is true.

12. Research has shown that beginners who observe other beginners practicing a skill will perform at a higher level when they begin to perform the skill than the beginners they observed.

True

False

The explanation for the given answer is that research has demonstrated that when beginners observe other beginners practicing a skill, they are able to learn from their mistakes and successes. This allows them to gain insights and strategies that they can apply when they start performing the skill themselves. By observing others, beginners are able to bypass some of the initial learning curve and perform at a higher level from the beginning. Therefore, it is true that beginners who observe other beginners practicing a skill will perform at a higher level when they begin to perform the skill themselves.

Explanation

The explanation for the given answer is that research has demonstrated that when beginners observe other beginners practicing a skill, they are able to learn from their mistakes and successes. This allows them to gain insights and strategies that they can apply when they start performing the skill themselves. By observing others, beginners are able to bypass some of the initial learning curve and perform at a higher level from the beginning. Therefore, it is true that beginners who observe other beginners practicing a skill will perform at a higher level when they begin to perform the skill themselves.

13. Research has shown that beginners who observe other beginners practicing a skill will perform at a higher level when they begin to perform the skill than the beginners they observed.

True

False

The statement is supported by research, which suggests that beginners who watch other beginners practice a skill tend to perform better when they start practicing the skill themselves. This could be attributed to various factors such as learning from the mistakes made by others, gaining confidence by witnessing others' progress, or understanding the correct techniques through observation. Overall, the research indicates that observing other beginners can positively impact one's own performance when starting to practice a new skill.

Explanation

The statement is supported by research, which suggests that beginners who watch other beginners practice a skill tend to perform better when they start practicing the skill themselves. This could be attributed to various factors such as learning from the mistakes made by others, gaining confidence by witnessing others' progress, or understanding the correct techniques through observation. Overall, the research indicates that observing other beginners can positively impact one's own performance when starting to practice a new skill.

14. Bilateral transfer occurred in lab if practice of a mirror tracing task with the preferred arm resulted in performance improvement of the non-preferred arm, which did not practice the task.

True

False

Bilateral transfer refers to the phenomenon where practice or improvement in one limb or side of the body leads to a similar improvement in the other limb or side of the body without any practice. In the given statement, it is stated that practicing a mirror tracing task with the preferred arm resulted in performance improvement of the non-preferred arm, which did not practice the task. This indicates that bilateral transfer occurred in the lab, as the practice with one arm led to improvement in the performance of the other arm. Therefore, the correct answer is True.

Explanation

Bilateral transfer refers to the phenomenon where practice or improvement in one limb or side of the body leads to a similar improvement in the other limb or side of the body without any practice. In the given statement, it is stated that practicing a mirror tracing task with the preferred arm resulted in performance improvement of the non-preferred arm, which did not practice the task. This indicates that bilateral transfer occurred in the lab, as the practice with one arm led to improvement in the performance of the other arm. Therefore, the correct answer is True.

15. If a motor skill requires the use of large musculature but does not require precision of movement for successful performance, then the skill would best be classified as a

Discrete motor skill

Fine motor skill

Gross motor skill

Open motor skill

A gross motor skill involves the use of large muscle groups and does not require precision of movement for successful performance. This means that the skill requires the coordination and control of larger body parts, such as the arms, legs, or torso, rather than fine movements that require precise control of smaller muscles. Examples of gross motor skills include running, jumping, or throwing a ball. Therefore, the given correct answer, "Gross motor skill," accurately describes a motor skill that fits the given criteria.

Explanation

A gross motor skill involves the use of large muscle groups and does not require precision of movement for successful performance. This means that the skill requires the coordination and control of larger body parts, such as the arms, legs, or torso, rather than fine movements that require precise control of smaller muscles. Examples of gross motor skills include running, jumping, or throwing a ball. Therefore, the given correct answer, "Gross motor skill," accurately describes a motor skill that fits the given criteria.

16. When mental practice involves visual imagery, it can take the form of internal or external imagery.

True

False

Mental practice can involve visual imagery, which can be either internal or external. Internal imagery refers to creating mental images in one's mind, while external imagery involves using actual visual aids or objects to enhance the practice. Therefore, the statement is true.

Explanation

Mental practice can involve visual imagery, which can be either internal or external. Internal imagery refers to creating mental images in one's mind, while external imagery involves using actual visual aids or objects to enhance the practice. Therefore, the statement is true.

17. One of the reasons for negative transfer is the initial cognitive confusion that occurs when a person must make a different movement in a familiar environmental context.

True

False

Negative transfer refers to the interference or hindrance that occurs when prior learning or experience in one context hinders the learning or performance in a new or different context. In this case, the explanation suggests that one of the reasons for negative transfer is the initial cognitive confusion that arises when a person has to perform a different movement in a familiar environment. This means that the familiarity of the environment can lead to confusion and hinder the ability to adapt to new movements, resulting in negative transfer. Therefore, the statement is true.

Explanation

Negative transfer refers to the interference or hindrance that occurs when prior learning or experience in one context hinders the learning or performance in a new or different context. In this case, the explanation suggests that one of the reasons for negative transfer is the initial cognitive confusion that arises when a person has to perform a different movement in a familiar environment. This means that the familiarity of the environment can lead to confusion and hinder the ability to adapt to new movements, resulting in negative transfer. Therefore, the statement is true.

18. Research has shown that people who practice in a blocked practice schedule tend to overestimate how well they are learning during practice.

True

False

The explanation for the given correct answer, True, is that research has demonstrated that individuals who engage in a blocked practice schedule, where they repeatedly practice the same skill or task, often overestimate their learning progress. This is because the repetition and familiarity of the task can create a false sense of mastery and confidence, leading to an overestimation of actual learning. In contrast, a varied practice schedule, where different skills or tasks are practiced in a random order, has been found to enhance long-term learning and retention.

Explanation

The explanation for the given correct answer, True, is that research has demonstrated that individuals who engage in a blocked practice schedule, where they repeatedly practice the same skill or task, often overestimate their learning progress. This is because the repetition and familiarity of the task can create a false sense of mastery and confidence, leading to an overestimation of actual learning. In contrast, a varied practice schedule, where different skills or tasks are practiced in a random order, has been found to enhance long-term learning and retention.

19. Research evidence has shown that learning continues during a performance plateau.

True

False

Research evidence has shown that learning continues during a performance plateau. This means that even when we experience a period where our performance remains stagnant or does not improve, our learning is still progressing. This can be attributed to the process of consolidation, where the brain strengthens newly acquired skills or knowledge. During a performance plateau, the brain is actively working to integrate and refine the learned information, which ultimately leads to future improvement.

Explanation

Research evidence has shown that learning continues during a performance plateau. This means that even when we experience a period where our performance remains stagnant or does not improve, our learning is still progressing. This can be attributed to the process of consolidation, where the brain strengthens newly acquired skills or knowledge. During a performance plateau, the brain is actively working to integrate and refine the learned information, which ultimately leads to future improvement.

20. Concurrent augmented feedback always has negative effects on motor skill learning.

True

False

Concurrent augmented feedback refers to the provision of additional information or cues during the performance of a motor skill. While it is true that excessive or constant feedback can have negative effects on motor skill learning by creating dependency on external cues, it is not accurate to claim that concurrent augmented feedback always has negative effects. In fact, when provided appropriately and in moderation, augmented feedback can be beneficial in enhancing skill acquisition and performance. It can help learners understand the correct movement patterns, provide motivation, and facilitate error correction. Therefore, the statement is false.

Explanation

Concurrent augmented feedback refers to the provision of additional information or cues during the performance of a motor skill. While it is true that excessive or constant feedback can have negative effects on motor skill learning by creating dependency on external cues, it is not accurate to claim that concurrent augmented feedback always has negative effects. In fact, when provided appropriately and in moderation, augmented feedback can be beneficial in enhancing skill acquisition and performance. It can help learners understand the correct movement patterns, provide motivation, and facilitate error correction. Therefore, the statement is false.

21. The terms modeling and observational learning often are used interchangeably with the term demonstration when they refer to the learning of motor skills.

True

False

The statement is true because modeling and observational learning are both ways in which individuals learn motor skills by observing and imitating others. These terms are often used interchangeably with the term demonstration, which also refers to the act of showing or modeling a specific skill or behavior for others to learn from. Therefore, all three terms essentially refer to the same process of learning motor skills through observation and imitation.

Explanation

The statement is true because modeling and observational learning are both ways in which individuals learn motor skills by observing and imitating others. These terms are often used interchangeably with the term demonstration, which also refers to the act of showing or modeling a specific skill or behavior for others to learn from. Therefore, all three terms essentially refer to the same process of learning motor skills through observation and imitation.

22. Gentile’s learning stages model indicates that in the first stage of learning, the learner must learn to discriminate between which two types of environmental context conditions?

Regulatory vs. nonregulatory

Visual vs. verbal

Real vs. not real

Environmental vs. internal

Gentile's learning stages model suggests that in the first stage of learning, the learner needs to learn to discriminate between regulatory and nonregulatory environmental context conditions. Regulatory conditions refer to external factors that directly influence the movement or action being performed, while nonregulatory conditions are external factors that do not directly affect the movement or action. This discrimination is crucial for the learner to understand which environmental cues are relevant and require a response and which ones are irrelevant and can be ignored.

Explanation

Gentile's learning stages model suggests that in the first stage of learning, the learner needs to learn to discriminate between regulatory and nonregulatory environmental context conditions. Regulatory conditions refer to external factors that directly influence the movement or action being performed, while nonregulatory conditions are external factors that do not directly affect the movement or action. This discrimination is crucial for the learner to understand which environmental cues are relevant and require a response and which ones are irrelevant and can be ignored.

23. Research has shown that the segmentation part-practice strategy will facilitate the learning of a musical score on a piano.

True

False

Research has shown that the segmentation part-practice strategy is effective in facilitating the learning of a musical score on a piano. This strategy involves breaking down the score into smaller segments and practicing each segment separately before integrating them together. By focusing on smaller sections, learners can concentrate on mastering specific techniques or challenging parts, leading to improved overall performance. This approach allows for targeted practice and enhances learning and retention of the musical score. Therefore, the statement "True" is an accurate reflection of the research findings.

Explanation

Research has shown that the segmentation part-practice strategy is effective in facilitating the learning of a musical score on a piano. This strategy involves breaking down the score into smaller segments and practicing each segment separately before integrating them together. By focusing on smaller sections, learners can concentrate on mastering specific techniques or challenging parts, leading to improved overall performance. This approach allows for targeted practice and enhances learning and retention of the musical score. Therefore, the statement "True" is an accurate reflection of the research findings.

24. A sensory neuropathy involving a limb provides a non-surgical technique for the investigation of deafferented humans.

True

False

This statement is true because a sensory neuropathy involving a limb refers to damage or dysfunction of the sensory nerves in that limb. This condition can occur due to various reasons such as injury, infection, or certain medical conditions. By studying individuals with sensory neuropathy, researchers can gain insights into the effects of sensory deprivation on human perception and function without the need for surgical interventions. This non-surgical technique allows for a better understanding of the nervous system and its role in sensory processing.

Explanation

This statement is true because a sensory neuropathy involving a limb refers to damage or dysfunction of the sensory nerves in that limb. This condition can occur due to various reasons such as injury, infection, or certain medical conditions. By studying individuals with sensory neuropathy, researchers can gain insights into the effects of sensory deprivation on human perception and function without the need for surgical interventions. This non-surgical technique allows for a better understanding of the nervous system and its role in sensory processing.

25. If a person is required to perform a practiced skill in a new situation, which method of assessing learning is being used?

Transfer test

Retention test

Practice observation

Performance test

A transfer test is used to assess learning when a person is required to perform a practiced skill in a new situation. This type of test measures the ability to apply knowledge and skills learned in one context to a different context. It evaluates the individual's understanding and adaptability in using the skill in a real-world scenario, demonstrating their ability to transfer their learning effectively.

Explanation

A transfer test is used to assess learning when a person is required to perform a practiced skill in a new situation. This type of test measures the ability to apply knowledge and skills learned in one context to a different context. It evaluates the individual's understanding and adaptability in using the skill in a real-world scenario, demonstrating their ability to transfer their learning effectively.

26. According to Fitts and Posner, the learner moves through three stages when learning a motor skill. These are the cognitive, the associative, and the

Verbal

Autonomous

Diversified

Fixated

According to Fitts and Posner, the learner moves through three stages when learning a motor skill. The cognitive stage is the initial stage where the learner is focused on understanding the skill and its requirements. The associative stage is the intermediate stage where the learner begins to refine their movements and make fewer errors. The autonomous stage is the final stage where the learner has mastered the skill and can perform it automatically and without conscious effort. Therefore, the correct answer is "autonomous" as it represents the third and final stage of motor skill learning.

Explanation

According to Fitts and Posner, the learner moves through three stages when learning a motor skill. The cognitive stage is the initial stage where the learner is focused on understanding the skill and its requirements. The associative stage is the intermediate stage where the learner begins to refine their movements and make fewer errors. The autonomous stage is the final stage where the learner has mastered the skill and can perform it automatically and without conscious effort. Therefore, the correct answer is "autonomous" as it represents the third and final stage of motor skill learning.

27. When you perform a motor skill with your right arm, activity in the same muscles can be detected in your left arm.

True

False

When performing a motor skill with the right arm, activity in the same muscles can be detected in the left arm. This phenomenon is known as cross-activation or cross-education. It occurs due to the neural connections between the two hemispheres of the brain. When one hemisphere is activated during a motor task, the opposite hemisphere is also activated to some extent. This cross-activation allows for coordination and synchronization between the arms, enabling bilateral movements. Therefore, the statement is true.

Explanation

When performing a motor skill with the right arm, activity in the same muscles can be detected in the left arm. This phenomenon is known as cross-activation or cross-education. It occurs due to the neural connections between the two hemispheres of the brain. When one hemisphere is activated during a motor task, the opposite hemisphere is also activated to some extent. This cross-activation allows for coordination and synchronization between the arms, enabling bilateral movements. Therefore, the statement is true.

28. Which method of assessing learning is used when people are required to perform a skill one week after they completed practicing that skill?

Performance test

Transfer test

Retention test

Practice observation

A retention test is used to assess learning when people are required to perform a skill one week after they completed practicing that skill. This test measures the ability to retain and recall the learned information or skills over a period of time. It evaluates the long-term retention and understanding of the material or skill, rather than just the immediate performance.

Explanation

A retention test is used to assess learning when people are required to perform a skill one week after they completed practicing that skill. This test measures the ability to retain and recall the learned information or skills over a period of time. It evaluates the long-term retention and understanding of the material or skill, rather than just the immediate performance.

29. Performing a skill with a minimum expenditure of energy is usually associated with which stage of learning?

Beginning stage

Intermediate stage

Advanced stage

All stages of learning

Performing a skill with a minimum expenditure of energy is usually associated with the advanced stage of learning. This is because at this stage, individuals have gained a high level of proficiency and mastery in the skill, allowing them to execute it efficiently and effectively with minimal effort. They have developed muscle memory and automaticity, enabling them to perform the skill smoothly and effortlessly.

Explanation

Performing a skill with a minimum expenditure of energy is usually associated with the advanced stage of learning. This is because at this stage, individuals have gained a high level of proficiency and mastery in the skill, allowing them to execute it efficiently and effectively with minimal effort. They have developed muscle memory and automaticity, enabling them to perform the skill smoothly and effortlessly.

30. Proprioceptors are not found in which of the following?

Joints

Bones

Muscles

Tendons

Proprioceptors are sensory receptors that provide information about body position, movement, and spatial orientation. They are located in muscles, tendons, and joints, but not in bones. Bones primarily serve as structural support and protection for organs, while proprioceptors are responsible for transmitting information about body position and movement to the central nervous system. Therefore, bones do not contain proprioceptors.

Explanation

Proprioceptors are sensory receptors that provide information about body position, movement, and spatial orientation. They are located in muscles, tendons, and joints, but not in bones. Bones primarily serve as structural support and protection for organs, while proprioceptors are responsible for transmitting information about body position and movement to the central nervous system. Therefore, bones do not contain proprioceptors.

31. Verbal instructions that direct the performer’s attention to the intended movement outcomes will lead to better learning and performance than instructions that direct attention to the movements used to perform the skill.

True

False

Verbal instructions that focus on the desired movement outcomes rather than the specific movements used to perform a skill have been found to be more effective for learning and performance. By directing the performer's attention to the end result they want to achieve, they are more likely to develop a better understanding of the skill and be able to execute it more effectively. This approach encourages a more holistic and intuitive understanding of the skill, rather than getting caught up in the mechanics of each movement.

Explanation

Verbal instructions that focus on the desired movement outcomes rather than the specific movements used to perform a skill have been found to be more effective for learning and performance. By directing the performer's attention to the end result they want to achieve, they are more likely to develop a better understanding of the skill and be able to execute it more effectively. This approach encourages a more holistic and intuitive understanding of the skill, rather than getting caught up in the mechanics of each movement.

32. Suppose you did an experiment that compared the effect of two practice conditions (A & B) on learning a skill. The results showed that during practice, performance for condition B was better than for A. But, on the transfer test, A was better than B. What should you conclude about which practice condition is better for learning?

Condition A is better for learning

Condition B is better for learning

Neither A nor B is better for learning

No conclusion about learning is possible

Based on the given information, it can be concluded that Condition A is better for learning. Although Condition B showed better performance during practice, it failed to show the same level of performance on the transfer test. This suggests that Condition A led to better retention and application of the learned skill, indicating its superiority in terms of learning.

Explanation

Based on the given information, it can be concluded that Condition A is better for learning. Although Condition B showed better performance during practice, it failed to show the same level of performance on the transfer test. This suggests that Condition A led to better retention and application of the learned skill, indicating its superiority in terms of learning.

33. Returning a serve in tennis is an example of which of the following types of motor skills?

Self-paced motor skill

Stationary motor skill

Closed motor skill

Open motor skill

Returning a serve in tennis is an example of an open motor skill because it involves responding to an unpredictable and constantly changing environment. The player must adjust their movements in real-time based on the speed, trajectory, and spin of the incoming ball. This requires quick decision-making, coordination, and the ability to adapt to the changing conditions of the game.

Explanation

Returning a serve in tennis is an example of an open motor skill because it involves responding to an unpredictable and constantly changing environment. The player must adjust their movements in real-time based on the speed, trajectory, and spin of the incoming ball. This requires quick decision-making, coordination, and the ability to adapt to the changing conditions of the game.

34. What term is used when a performance reaches a steady state after showing steady improvement during practice and then begins to show improvement again?

Ceiling effect

Floor effect

Performance plateau

Steady-state performance

A performance plateau is a term used to describe a situation where a performance reaches a steady state after showing steady improvement during practice and then begins to show improvement again. It refers to a period where there is a temporary halt in progress or growth, indicating that further improvement may require a different approach or strategy. This term is commonly used in various fields such as sports, education, and professional development to describe a period of stagnation or leveling off in performance.

Explanation

A performance plateau is a term used to describe a situation where a performance reaches a steady state after showing steady improvement during practice and then begins to show improvement again. It refers to a period where there is a temporary halt in progress or growth, indicating that further improvement may require a different approach or strategy. This term is commonly used in various fields such as sports, education, and professional development to describe a period of stagnation or leveling off in performance.

35. Giving augmented feedback to a beginner only when he or she requests it is better than giving the augmented feedback on every trial.

True

False

Providing augmented feedback to a beginner only when they request it is better than giving feedback on every trial because it allows the learner to take ownership of their learning process. By requesting feedback, the learner actively engages in self-assessment and identifies areas where they need assistance. This approach promotes self-reflection and independence, enabling the learner to develop problem-solving skills and self-correction abilities. In contrast, providing feedback on every trial may lead to dependency on external guidance, hindering the learner's ability to develop critical thinking and decision-making skills.

Explanation

Providing augmented feedback to a beginner only when they request it is better than giving feedback on every trial because it allows the learner to take ownership of their learning process. By requesting feedback, the learner actively engages in self-assessment and identifies areas where they need assistance. This approach promotes self-reflection and independence, enabling the learner to develop problem-solving skills and self-correction abilities. In contrast, providing feedback on every trial may lead to dependency on external guidance, hindering the learner's ability to develop critical thinking and decision-making skills.

36. If a novice and highly skilled typist were required to perform a verbal secondary task while typing on a keyboard the novice’s typing performance would be

Impossible to assess

More positively influenced than the skilled typist's

More negatively influenced than the skilled typist’s

No different from the skilled typist's

When a novice typist is required to perform a verbal secondary task while typing, their typing performance is likely to be more negatively influenced compared to a skilled typist. This is because the novice typist is still in the process of learning and developing their typing skills, so dividing their attention between typing and a secondary task can lead to a decrease in their typing accuracy and speed. On the other hand, a highly skilled typist has already mastered the necessary motor skills and can perform typing tasks more efficiently, even when distracted by a secondary task.

Explanation

When a novice typist is required to perform a verbal secondary task while typing, their typing performance is likely to be more negatively influenced compared to a skilled typist. This is because the novice typist is still in the process of learning and developing their typing skills, so dividing their attention between typing and a secondary task can lead to a decrease in their typing accuracy and speed. On the other hand, a highly skilled typist has already mastered the necessary motor skills and can perform typing tasks more efficiently, even when distracted by a secondary task.

37. Although researchers have reported various findings, the most reasonable estimate of the amount of time required for visual feedback to enable a movement correction during the performance of a simple manual aiming task is

Between 100 and 160 msec

Between 500 and 560 msec

More than 1000 msec

No time is required; corrections are instantaneous

The most reasonable estimate of the amount of time required for visual feedback to enable a movement correction during a simple manual aiming task is between 100 and 160 msec. This suggests that it takes a short period of time for individuals to visually process information and make the necessary adjustments to their movements. It is not instantaneous, as indicated by the other options, and it is also not as long as 500 and 560 msec or more than 1000 msec.

Explanation

The most reasonable estimate of the amount of time required for visual feedback to enable a movement correction during a simple manual aiming task is between 100 and 160 msec. This suggests that it takes a short period of time for individuals to visually process information and make the necessary adjustments to their movements. It is not instantaneous, as indicated by the other options, and it is also not as long as 500 and 560 msec or more than 1000 msec.

38. The most common performance measure used for inferring the amount of time required for action preparation is

Movement time

Reaction time

Motor time

Response time

The most common performance measure used for inferring the amount of time required for action preparation is reaction time. Reaction time refers to the time it takes for an individual to respond to a stimulus after it is presented. It is often used as an indicator of the efficiency of cognitive and motor processes involved in preparing and initiating a response. By measuring reaction time, researchers can gain insights into the speed and accuracy of information processing, decision-making, and motor planning.

Explanation

The most common performance measure used for inferring the amount of time required for action preparation is reaction time. Reaction time refers to the time it takes for an individual to respond to a stimulus after it is presented. It is often used as an indicator of the efficiency of cognitive and motor processes involved in preparing and initiating a response. By measuring reaction time, researchers can gain insights into the speed and accuracy of information processing, decision-making, and motor planning.

39. Consider the following performance situation: You are a basketball player guarding an opponent who has the ball. You know that about 80% of the time in this situation the player will move to your right and take a shot. So, you prepare to move in that direction. But, unexpectedly the player moves to your left. Which of the following describes your RT in this situation?

It is not possible to predict RT without more information about the situation

RT will be the same as if you had not prepared to move to the right

RT will be faster than if you had not prepared to move to the right

RT will be slower than if you had not prepared to move to the right

In this situation, the basketball player's reaction time (RT) will be slower than if they had not prepared to move to the right. This is because their initial expectation was that the opponent would move to the right and take a shot. When the opponent unexpectedly moves to the left, it requires the player to adjust their movement and react in a different direction, causing a delay in their response time.

Explanation

In this situation, the basketball player's reaction time (RT) will be slower than if they had not prepared to move to the right. This is because their initial expectation was that the opponent would move to the right and take a shot. When the opponent unexpectedly moves to the left, it requires the player to adjust their movement and react in a different direction, causing a delay in their response time.

40. If you are asked to demonstrate how you tie your shoes, you would base your demonstration on knowledge stored in long-term memory in the

Procedural memory system

Episodic memory system

Muscle memory system

Semantic memory system

The procedural memory system is responsible for storing knowledge related to skills and procedures, such as tying shoes. When asked to demonstrate how to tie shoes, you would rely on this memory system to recall the step-by-step process and perform the task. This type of memory is often automatic and does not require conscious effort, as it is stored in the motor and sensory areas of the brain.

Explanation

The procedural memory system is responsible for storing knowledge related to skills and procedures, such as tying shoes. When asked to demonstrate how to tie shoes, you would rely on this memory system to recall the step-by-step process and perform the task. This type of memory is often automatic and does not require conscious effort, as it is stored in the motor and sensory areas of the brain.

41. Which of the following is least likely to be evident about a performer from a performance curve?

Improvement

Persistence

Age

Consistency

Adaptability

A performer's age is least likely to be evident from a performance curve because age does not directly correlate with performance. The performance curve typically shows the improvement, persistence, consistency, and adaptability of a performer over time, but age is not a determining factor in these aspects. Performance can vary greatly among individuals of the same age, so it is not a reliable indicator of a performer's age.

Explanation

A performer's age is least likely to be evident from a performance curve because age does not directly correlate with performance. The performance curve typically shows the improvement, persistence, consistency, and adaptability of a performer over time, but age is not a determining factor in these aspects. Performance can vary greatly among individuals of the same age, so it is not a reliable indicator of a performer's age.

42. Reaction time is the interval of time between which two events?

Warning signal and stimulus signal

Stimulus signal and the completion of the response

Stimulus signal and initiation of the response

Warning signal and the initiation of the response

The correct answer is "Stimulus signal and initiation of the response". Reaction time refers to the time it takes for an individual to respond to a stimulus after it has been presented. In this case, the stimulus signal marks the beginning of the reaction time interval, and the initiation of the response marks the end of the interval. Therefore, the correct answer is the interval between the stimulus signal and the initiation of the response.

Explanation

The correct answer is "Stimulus signal and initiation of the response". Reaction time refers to the time it takes for an individual to respond to a stimulus after it has been presented. In this case, the stimulus signal marks the beginning of the reaction time interval, and the initiation of the response marks the end of the interval. Therefore, the correct answer is the interval between the stimulus signal and the initiation of the response.

43. Parkinson’s disease is the result of a dysfunction of which area of the brain?

Basal ganglia

Cerebellum

Cerebral cortex

Diencephalons

Parkinson's disease is caused by a dysfunction in the basal ganglia, which is a group of structures located deep within the brain. The basal ganglia play a crucial role in regulating movement and motor control. In Parkinson's disease, the neurons in the basal ganglia degenerate and produce less dopamine, a neurotransmitter involved in movement. This leads to the characteristic symptoms of Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, rigidity, and difficulty with coordination and balance. Dysfunction in other areas of the brain, such as the cerebellum, cerebral cortex, or diencephalon, may contribute to other neurological disorders, but they are not primarily responsible for Parkinson's disease.

Explanation

Parkinson's disease is caused by a dysfunction in the basal ganglia, which is a group of structures located deep within the brain. The basal ganglia play a crucial role in regulating movement and motor control. In Parkinson's disease, the neurons in the basal ganglia degenerate and produce less dopamine, a neurotransmitter involved in movement. This leads to the characteristic symptoms of Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, rigidity, and difficulty with coordination and balance. Dysfunction in other areas of the brain, such as the cerebellum, cerebral cortex, or diencephalon, may contribute to other neurological disorders, but they are not primarily responsible for Parkinson's disease.

44. According to Fitts’ Law, a person’s movement time will be faster for a task with an ID of 6 than for an ID of 3.

True

False

According to Fitts' Law, movement time is determined by the size of the target and the distance to be traveled. The law states that movement time increases as the task difficulty increases, which is measured by the Index of Difficulty (ID). The ID is calculated by taking the logarithm of the distance divided by the target size. In this case, if the ID of the task with 6 is smaller than the ID of the task with 3, it means that the task with 6 has a larger target size or a shorter distance to be traveled, making it easier and faster to complete. Therefore, the given statement is false.

Explanation

According to Fitts' Law, movement time is determined by the size of the target and the distance to be traveled. The law states that movement time increases as the task difficulty increases, which is measured by the Index of Difficulty (ID). The ID is calculated by taking the logarithm of the distance divided by the target size. In this case, if the ID of the task with 6 is smaller than the ID of the task with 3, it means that the task with 6 has a larger target size or a shorter distance to be traveled, making it easier and faster to complete. Therefore, the given statement is false.

45. Shooting a free throw in basketball is an example of an open motor skill.

True

False

Shooting a free throw in basketball is actually an example of a closed motor skill, not an open motor skill. Closed motor skills are those that are performed in a predictable and stable environment, where the performer has control over the execution of the skill. In the case of shooting a free throw, the environment is relatively stable and the shooter has control over their movements and execution. Open motor skills, on the other hand, are performed in a dynamic and unpredictable environment, where the performer must react and adapt to changing conditions.

Explanation

Shooting a free throw in basketball is actually an example of a closed motor skill, not an open motor skill. Closed motor skills are those that are performed in a predictable and stable environment, where the performer has control over the execution of the skill. In the case of shooting a free throw, the environment is relatively stable and the shooter has control over their movements and execution. Open motor skills, on the other hand, are performed in a dynamic and unpredictable environment, where the performer must react and adapt to changing conditions.

46. The playing of a guitar is a good example of performing

A symmetric bimanual skill

A prehension skill

A manual aiming skill

An asymmetric bimanual skill

Playing a guitar involves using both hands, but the actions performed by each hand are different. The dominant hand is responsible for strumming or plucking the strings, while the non-dominant hand is used to press down on the frets to change the pitch. This requires coordination and synchronization between the two hands, but they are performing different tasks. Therefore, playing a guitar can be classified as an asymmetric bimanual skill.

Explanation

Playing a guitar involves using both hands, but the actions performed by each hand are different. The dominant hand is responsible for strumming or plucking the strings, while the non-dominant hand is used to press down on the frets to change the pitch. This requires coordination and synchronization between the two hands, but they are performing different tasks. Therefore, playing a guitar can be classified as an asymmetric bimanual skill.

47. Which of the following is generally not considered a characteristic of learning?

Improved consistency

Improved performance

Increased persistence

Improved adaptability

Increased strength

Increased strength is generally not considered a characteristic of learning. Learning typically involves acquiring knowledge or skills, improving performance, consistency, adaptability, and persistence. Strength, on the other hand, is more related to physical abilities or attributes rather than the process of learning. Therefore, increased strength is not typically regarded as a characteristic of learning.

Explanation

Increased strength is generally not considered a characteristic of learning. Learning typically involves acquiring knowledge or skills, improving performance, consistency, adaptability, and persistence. Strength, on the other hand, is more related to physical abilities or attributes rather than the process of learning. Therefore, increased strength is not typically regarded as a characteristic of learning.

48. A limitation of the contextual interference effect is that it applies only to beginners and not to more skilled performers of motor skills.

True

False

The contextual interference effect is not limited to beginners but also applies to more skilled performers of motor skills. This effect refers to the interference caused by practicing multiple variations of a skill in a random order, which has been found to enhance learning and retention. Research has shown that even skilled performers can benefit from this effect, as it promotes deeper learning and transfer of skills to different contexts. Therefore, the statement that the contextual interference effect applies only to beginners is false.

Explanation

The contextual interference effect is not limited to beginners but also applies to more skilled performers of motor skills. This effect refers to the interference caused by practicing multiple variations of a skill in a random order, which has been found to enhance learning and retention. Research has shown that even skilled performers can benefit from this effect, as it promotes deeper learning and transfer of skills to different contexts. Therefore, the statement that the contextual interference effect applies only to beginners is false.

49. Research has shown that the overlearning strategy benefits the learning of all types of motor skills.

True

False

The statement is false because research has actually shown that the overlearning strategy does not benefit the learning of all types of motor skills. While overlearning can be beneficial for certain skills, such as those that require precision and consistency, it may not be as effective for other skills that require adaptability and flexibility. Therefore, the overlearning strategy does not universally benefit the learning of all motor skills.

Explanation

The statement is false because research has actually shown that the overlearning strategy does not benefit the learning of all types of motor skills. While overlearning can be beneficial for certain skills, such as those that require precision and consistency, it may not be as effective for other skills that require adaptability and flexibility. Therefore, the overlearning strategy does not universally benefit the learning of all motor skills.

50. When a person learning handwriting moves the three arm segments as if two of the segments were one, this person demonstrates an early learning characteristic known as

Freeing degrees of freedom

Freezing degrees of freedom

He power law of practice

Movement specific learning

Freezing degrees of freedom refers to the tendency of a beginner to restrict or limit the movement of certain body parts or segments while learning a new skill. In the context of the question, when a person learning handwriting moves the three arm segments as if two of the segments were one, they are freezing the degrees of freedom of their arm movements. This is a characteristic commonly observed in early stages of motor learning, where the learner tries to simplify the task by reducing the number of independent movements.

Explanation

Freezing degrees of freedom refers to the tendency of a beginner to restrict or limit the movement of certain body parts or segments while learning a new skill. In the context of the question, when a person learning handwriting moves the three arm segments as if two of the segments were one, they are freezing the degrees of freedom of their arm movements. This is a characteristic commonly observed in early stages of motor learning, where the learner tries to simplify the task by reducing the number of independent movements.

51. The motor control explanation for bilateral transfer has been supported by research evidence showing

EMG activity in the non-performing limb when the opposite limb performs the skill

EEG activity during practice with one limb

Kinematic characteristics are similar for performance of the skill by each limb

The cognitive processing similarity for performing the skill with each limb

The correct answer is EMG activity in the non-performing limb when the opposite limb performs the skill. This explanation is supported by research evidence, which shows that when one limb performs a skill, there is also EMG activity in the non-performing limb. This suggests that there is a transfer of motor control between the limbs, indicating a bilateral transfer.

Explanation

The correct answer is EMG activity in the non-performing limb when the opposite limb performs the skill. This explanation is supported by research evidence, which shows that when one limb performs a skill, there is also EMG activity in the non-performing limb. This suggests that there is a transfer of motor control between the limbs, indicating a bilateral transfer.

52. The nerve fiber that transmits information from the neuron is known as the

Axon

Dendrite

Synapse

Myelin

The correct answer is Axon. The axon is a long, slender projection of a neuron that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body and transmits information to other neurons or to muscles and glands. It is responsible for transmitting signals to other cells and plays a crucial role in the communication between neurons in the nervous system.

Explanation

The correct answer is Axon. The axon is a long, slender projection of a neuron that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body and transmits information to other neurons or to muscles and glands. It is responsible for transmitting signals to other cells and plays a crucial role in the communication between neurons in the nervous system.

53. Studies comparing experts and novices in motor skill performance show that

Experts have better visual activity

Experts focus only on certain aspects of the visual cues

Experts focus better on all of the visual cues in the environment

Experts are better at tracking fast-moving objects

Experts in motor skill performance have honed their abilities through extensive practice and experience. They have developed the ability to selectively focus on specific aspects of the visual cues relevant to the task at hand. This selective attention allows them to filter out irrelevant information and concentrate on the most important visual cues. By narrowing their focus, experts are able to process and interpret these cues more effectively, leading to improved motor skill performance.

Explanation

Experts in motor skill performance have honed their abilities through extensive practice and experience. They have developed the ability to selectively focus on specific aspects of the visual cues relevant to the task at hand. This selective attention allows them to filter out irrelevant information and concentrate on the most important visual cues. By narrowing their focus, experts are able to process and interpret these cues more effectively, leading to improved motor skill performance.

54. Which type of reaction time situation occurs when there are several signals but only one response is to be made to one signal; and other signals are ignored and no response made?

Simple RT

Discrimination RT

Choice RT

Serial RT

Discrimination RT refers to a type of reaction time situation where there are multiple signals, but only one response is required for a specific signal, while the other signals are ignored and no response is made. In this scenario, the individual needs to discriminate between the relevant signal and the irrelevant ones, focusing on the specific signal and responding accordingly.

Explanation

Discrimination RT refers to a type of reaction time situation where there are multiple signals, but only one response is required for a specific signal, while the other signals are ignored and no response is made. In this scenario, the individual needs to discriminate between the relevant signal and the irrelevant ones, focusing on the specific signal and responding accordingly.

55. Hick’s Law states that reaction time (RT) will increase logarithmically as the

Number of response choices increases

Distance required by the movement increases

Movement complexity increases

Arousal level of the individual increases

Hick's Law states that as the number of response choices increases, the reaction time will increase logarithmically. This means that when presented with more options, it takes longer for an individual to make a decision and respond. This is because the brain needs more time to process and analyze the increased amount of information before selecting a response. Therefore, the more choices there are, the longer it will take for someone to react.

Explanation

Hick's Law states that as the number of response choices increases, the reaction time will increase logarithmically. This means that when presented with more options, it takes longer for an individual to make a decision and respond. This is because the brain needs more time to process and analyze the increased amount of information before selecting a response. Therefore, the more choices there are, the longer it will take for someone to react.

56. What does an increase in reaction time (RT) mean?

Time to start moving is shorter

Movements are quicker

Time to start moving is longer

Movements are slower

An increase in reaction time (RT) means that the time it takes for an individual to start moving in response to a stimulus is longer. This indicates that there is a delay in the initiation of movement, suggesting slower processing and response to the stimulus.

Explanation

An increase in reaction time (RT) means that the time it takes for an individual to start moving in response to a stimulus is longer. This indicates that there is a delay in the initiation of movement, suggesting slower processing and response to the stimulus.

57. Which type of performance curve shows larger increases in performance during early practice trials than in later trials?

Negatively accelerating curve

Positively accelerating curve

Ogive curve

Linear curve

A negatively accelerating curve shows larger increases in performance during early practice trials than in later trials. This means that initially, there is a rapid improvement in performance, but as practice continues, the rate of improvement slows down. This type of curve suggests that the learner quickly grasps the basic skills but finds it increasingly difficult to make significant progress as they become more proficient.

Explanation

A negatively accelerating curve shows larger increases in performance during early practice trials than in later trials. This means that initially, there is a rapid improvement in performance, but as practice continues, the rate of improvement slows down. This type of curve suggests that the learner quickly grasps the basic skills but finds it increasingly difficult to make significant progress as they become more proficient.

58. Only the brain activity hypothesis is generally accepted as an explanation of the effectiveness of mental practice for motor skill learning and performance.

True

False

The explanation for the given answer is that while the brain activity hypothesis is one of the explanations for the effectiveness of mental practice for motor skill learning and performance, it is not the only accepted explanation. There are other theories and hypotheses that also contribute to understanding why mental practice is effective. Therefore, the statement that only the brain activity hypothesis is generally accepted is false.

Explanation

The explanation for the given answer is that while the brain activity hypothesis is one of the explanations for the effectiveness of mental practice for motor skill learning and performance, it is not the only accepted explanation. There are other theories and hypotheses that also contribute to understanding why mental practice is effective. Therefore, the statement that only the brain activity hypothesis is generally accepted is false.

59. When mental practice trials and physical practice trials are included in practice sessions, skill learning can be as good as when the same number of trials involve only physical practice.

True

False

Including both mental and physical practice trials in practice sessions can lead to the same level of skill learning as when the same number of trials involve only physical practice. This suggests that mental practice can be just as effective as physical practice in improving skills.

Explanation

Including both mental and physical practice trials in practice sessions can lead to the same level of skill learning as when the same number of trials involve only physical practice. This suggests that mental practice can be just as effective as physical practice in improving skills.

60. Gentile’s learning stages model indicates that in the second stage of learning, one goal of the learner is related specifically to closed skills. This goal is called

Diversification

Relevant

Irrelevant

Fixation

In Gentile's learning stages model, the second stage of learning is characterized by the learner focusing on closed skills. Closed skills are skills that are performed in a predictable and stable environment, where the learner has control over the situation. In this stage, the learner's goal is to achieve fixation, which refers to the ability to consistently and accurately perform the skill. This means that the learner aims to achieve a high level of proficiency and consistency in executing the closed skill.

Explanation

In Gentile's learning stages model, the second stage of learning is characterized by the learner focusing on closed skills. Closed skills are skills that are performed in a predictable and stable environment, where the learner has control over the situation. In this stage, the learner's goal is to achieve fixation, which refers to the ability to consistently and accurately perform the skill. This means that the learner aims to achieve a high level of proficiency and consistency in executing the closed skill.

61. The terms mental practice and meditation can be used interchangeably.

True

False

The statement is false because mental practice and meditation are not interchangeable terms. Mental practice refers to the process of mentally rehearsing or visualizing a specific skill or activity, while meditation is a practice of focusing the mind and achieving a state of deep relaxation or heightened awareness. Although both practices involve the mind, they have distinct purposes and techniques.

Explanation

The statement is false because mental practice and meditation are not interchangeable terms. Mental practice refers to the process of mentally rehearsing or visualizing a specific skill or activity, while meditation is a practice of focusing the mind and achieving a state of deep relaxation or heightened awareness. Although both practices involve the mind, they have distinct purposes and techniques.

62. Fitts’ Law specifies that performance will show a speed-accuracy trade-off in a rapid manual aiming task according to the relationship between which two characteristics of the task?

Distance to move and target size

Distance to move and movement speed

Target size and type of target

Target size and movement speed

Fitts' Law states that the time it takes to complete a rapid manual aiming task is influenced by the distance to move and the target size. According to this law, as the distance to move increases or the target size decreases, the task becomes more difficult and therefore takes longer to complete. This relationship between distance to move and target size determines the speed-accuracy trade-off in the task.

Explanation

Fitts' Law states that the time it takes to complete a rapid manual aiming task is influenced by the distance to move and the target size. According to this law, as the distance to move increases or the target size decreases, the task becomes more difficult and therefore takes longer to complete. This relationship between distance to move and target size determines the speed-accuracy trade-off in the task.

63. If you measure the distance achieved or the accuracy of a movement, you are measuring:

Performance production

Duration

Reaction time

Variable time

Performance outcome

When measuring the distance achieved or the accuracy of a movement, you are assessing the end result or outcome of the performance. This is known as the performance outcome, which focuses on the final product or achievement rather than the process or duration of the performance. It does not refer to the time taken for the performance or any variability in the time.

Explanation

When measuring the distance achieved or the accuracy of a movement, you are assessing the end result or outcome of the performance. This is known as the performance outcome, which focuses on the final product or achievement rather than the process or duration of the performance. It does not refer to the time taken for the performance or any variability in the time.

64. Which of the following areas of the cerebral cortex is primarily responsible for organizing movements before they are initiated?

Premotor area

Parietal lobe

Supplementary motor area

Primary motor complex

The premotor area of the cerebral cortex is primarily responsible for organizing movements before they are initiated. This region is involved in planning and coordinating complex motor actions, such as reaching, grasping, and manipulating objects. It receives input from various sensory areas and integrates this information to generate appropriate motor commands. The premotor area also plays a role in motor learning and memory, allowing for the development and refinement of motor skills over time.

Explanation

The premotor area of the cerebral cortex is primarily responsible for organizing movements before they are initiated. This region is involved in planning and coordinating complex motor actions, such as reaching, grasping, and manipulating objects. It receives input from various sensory areas and integrates this information to generate appropriate motor commands. The premotor area also plays a role in motor learning and memory, allowing for the development and refinement of motor skills over time.

65. The encoding specificity principle suggests that

Game-like practice should be used to prepare for best performance

Skilled performers organize information better

Visual imagery improves memory

Telling people what will be tested improves performance

The encoding specificity principle suggests that game-like practice should be used to prepare for best performance. This principle states that the context in which information is learned is important for later retrieval. By practicing in a game-like setting, individuals are more likely to remember and apply the information in a real-life situation. This type of practice enhances the encoding of information, making it more specific and easier to retrieve during performance. Therefore, game-like practice is recommended for optimal preparation and performance.

Explanation

The encoding specificity principle suggests that game-like practice should be used to prepare for best performance. This principle states that the context in which information is learned is important for later retrieval. By practicing in a game-like setting, individuals are more likely to remember and apply the information in a real-life situation. This type of practice enhances the encoding of information, making it more specific and easier to retrieve during performance. Therefore, game-like practice is recommended for optimal preparation and performance.

66. Measuring error helps indicate movement accuracy and also

Possible causes of performance problems

Reaction time

Movement time

Coordination

Referee mistakes

Measuring error helps indicate movement accuracy and possible causes of performance problems. By measuring error, we can identify how accurately a movement is being executed, which can provide insights into the performance of an individual or a system. Performance problems can arise due to various factors such as reaction time, movement time, coordination, and even referee mistakes. Measuring error allows us to analyze and pinpoint the potential causes of these performance problems, enabling us to make improvements and enhance overall performance.

Explanation

Measuring error helps indicate movement accuracy and possible causes of performance problems. By measuring error, we can identify how accurately a movement is being executed, which can provide insights into the performance of an individual or a system. Performance problems can arise due to various factors such as reaction time, movement time, coordination, and even referee mistakes. Measuring error allows us to analyze and pinpoint the potential causes of these performance problems, enabling us to make improvements and enhance overall performance.

67. According to Schmidt’s motor program-based theory of motor control, which of the following would be controlled by the same generalized motor program (GMP)?

Using either hand to reach for and grasp an object

Hitting a golf ball and hitting a pitched baseball

Throwing a ball overhand and underhand

Walking and running

According to Schmidt's motor program-based theory of motor control, using either hand to reach for and grasp an object would be controlled by the same generalized motor program (GMP). This theory suggests that certain motor programs can be generalized and applied to different movements that share similar characteristics. In this case, reaching for and grasping an object with either hand involves similar movement patterns and coordination, making them controlled by the same GMP.

Explanation

According to Schmidt's motor program-based theory of motor control, using either hand to reach for and grasp an object would be controlled by the same generalized motor program (GMP). This theory suggests that certain motor programs can be generalized and applied to different movements that share similar characteristics. In this case, reaching for and grasping an object with either hand involves similar movement patterns and coordination, making them controlled by the same GMP.

68. Which of the following techniques that researchers use to study the role of proprioception in motor control does not completely remove proprioceptive feedback but only distorts it?

Tendon vibration

Nerve block

Surgical deafferentation

Sensory neuropathy

Tendon vibration is a technique used by researchers to study the role of proprioception in motor control. It involves applying vibrations to the tendons, which leads to a distortion of proprioceptive feedback. However, it does not completely remove proprioceptive feedback. Therefore, tendon vibration is the technique that does not completely remove proprioceptive feedback but only distorts it.

Explanation

Tendon vibration is a technique used by researchers to study the role of proprioception in motor control. It involves applying vibrations to the tendons, which leads to a distortion of proprioceptive feedback. However, it does not completely remove proprioceptive feedback. Therefore, tendon vibration is the technique that does not completely remove proprioceptive feedback but only distorts it.

69. Which of the following will increase reaction time (RT)?

Movement complexity

Repetition

Fewer choices

Foreperiod regularity

Movement complexity refers to the level of difficulty or intricacy involved in performing a specific movement. When the movement is complex, it requires more cognitive processing and coordination, leading to an increased reaction time. This is because the brain needs more time to analyze and plan the movement, resulting in a delayed response. Therefore, movement complexity can be seen as a factor that increases reaction time.

Explanation

Movement complexity refers to the level of difficulty or intricacy involved in performing a specific movement. When the movement is complex, it requires more cognitive processing and coordination, leading to an increased reaction time. This is because the brain needs more time to analyze and plan the movement, resulting in a delayed response. Therefore, movement complexity can be seen as a factor that increases reaction time.

70. In addition to serving as a temporary storage system, working memory also serves as a

Procedural knowledge storage location

Library of information

Permanent storage system

Temporary workspace

Working memory is a cognitive system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for complex cognitive tasks. It acts as a temporary workspace where information is actively processed and manipulated. Unlike permanent storage systems such as long-term memory, working memory is not designed for long-term storage but rather for immediate use. It allows us to hold and manipulate information in our minds, making it an essential component of various cognitive processes like problem-solving, decision-making, and learning. Therefore, the term "temporary workspace" accurately describes the role of working memory in our cognitive functioning.

Explanation

Working memory is a cognitive system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for complex cognitive tasks. It acts as a temporary workspace where information is actively processed and manipulated. Unlike permanent storage systems such as long-term memory, working memory is not designed for long-term storage but rather for immediate use. It allows us to hold and manipulate information in our minds, making it an essential component of various cognitive processes like problem-solving, decision-making, and learning. Therefore, the term "temporary workspace" accurately describes the role of working memory in our cognitive functioning.

71. Which of the following do transfer tests in motor learning research not involve?

A different, although related, skill than was practiced

A novel variation of the practiced skill

The practiced skill in a new situation

The practiced skill one day after practice ends

Transfer tests in motor learning research involve assessing the transfer of skills from the practiced skill to a different, although related, skill than was practiced, a novel variation of the practiced skill, and the practiced skill in a new situation. However, transfer tests do not involve assessing the practiced skill one day after practice ends.

Explanation

Transfer tests in motor learning research involve assessing the transfer of skills from the practiced skill to a different, although related, skill than was practiced, a novel variation of the practiced skill, and the practiced skill in a new situation. However, transfer tests do not involve assessing the practiced skill one day after practice ends.

72. A limitation of the contextual interference effect is that it has been demonstrated in laboratory conditions but not in conditions outside the laboratory.

True

False

The given statement is false. The contextual interference effect has not only been demonstrated in laboratory conditions but also in conditions outside the laboratory. This effect refers to the phenomenon where practicing multiple variations of a task in a random order leads to better learning and retention compared to practicing the same variations in a blocked order. Numerous studies have shown the benefits of contextual interference in real-world settings such as sports training, rehabilitation, and skill acquisition in various domains. Therefore, it is incorrect to state that the effect has only been observed in laboratory conditions.

Explanation

The given statement is false. The contextual interference effect has not only been demonstrated in laboratory conditions but also in conditions outside the laboratory. This effect refers to the phenomenon where practicing multiple variations of a task in a random order leads to better learning and retention compared to practicing the same variations in a blocked order. Numerous studies have shown the benefits of contextual interference in real-world settings such as sports training, rehabilitation, and skill acquisition in various domains. Therefore, it is incorrect to state that the effect has only been observed in laboratory conditions.

73. Research has shown that mental practice is effective as a performance preparation strategy but not as an aid to learning a new motor skill.

True

False

The statement is false because research has actually shown that mental practice is effective not only as a performance preparation strategy but also as an aid to learning a new motor skill. Mental practice involves imagining and visualizing oneself performing a skill, which has been found to enhance motor learning and improve performance. This technique is often used by athletes and musicians to mentally rehearse their movements or performances, leading to improved skill acquisition and execution.

Explanation

The statement is false because research has actually shown that mental practice is effective not only as a performance preparation strategy but also as an aid to learning a new motor skill. Mental practice involves imagining and visualizing oneself performing a skill, which has been found to enhance motor learning and improve performance. This technique is often used by athletes and musicians to mentally rehearse their movements or performances, leading to improved skill acquisition and execution.

74. Which term is used in the motor learning research literature when referring to an observed behavior?

Skill

Performance

Learning

Practice

In motor learning research literature, the term "performance" is used to refer to an observed behavior. Performance refers to the execution of a specific skill or task at a given time. It is the actual behavior that can be observed, measured, and evaluated. In contrast, learning refers to the relatively permanent change in behavior or capability that comes with practice and experience. While practice and skill are related to performance and learning, they do not specifically refer to the observed behavior itself.

Explanation

In motor learning research literature, the term "performance" is used to refer to an observed behavior. Performance refers to the execution of a specific skill or task at a given time. It is the actual behavior that can be observed, measured, and evaluated. In contrast, learning refers to the relatively permanent change in behavior or capability that comes with practice and experience. While practice and skill are related to performance and learning, they do not specifically refer to the observed behavior itself.

75. If you ask a person to perform a variation of a practiced skill, which method of assessing learning are you using?

Performance test

Practice observation

Retention test

Transfer test

A transfer test is used to assess learning when a person is asked to perform a variation of a practiced skill. This test evaluates the ability to apply knowledge and skills in a different context or situation, demonstrating the transfer of learning from the original skill to a new one. It measures the individual's adaptability and problem-solving skills, as well as their understanding of the underlying principles and concepts. In this case, the person is being tested on their ability to transfer their practiced skill to a slightly different task or situation.

Explanation

A transfer test is used to assess learning when a person is asked to perform a variation of a practiced skill. This test evaluates the ability to apply knowledge and skills in a different context or situation, demonstrating the transfer of learning from the original skill to a new one. It measures the individual's adaptability and problem-solving skills, as well as their understanding of the underlying principles and concepts. In this case, the person is being tested on their ability to transfer their practiced skill to a slightly different task or situation.

76. “Transport”, “grasp”, and “manipulation” are three components of what?

Impulse-timing

Prehension

Motor equivalence

Dynamic pattern theory

Bimanual coordination

The three components mentioned - "transport", "grasp", and "manipulation" - are all related to the act of prehension. Prehension refers to the process of reaching out, grasping an object, and manipulating it. These components are essential in the overall process of prehension, where transport involves moving the hand towards the object, grasp involves the act of holding onto the object, and manipulation involves using the hands to perform specific actions or tasks with the object. Therefore, prehension is the correct answer that encompasses all three components.

Explanation

The three components mentioned - "transport", "grasp", and "manipulation" - are all related to the act of prehension. Prehension refers to the process of reaching out, grasping an object, and manipulating it. These components are essential in the overall process of prehension, where transport involves moving the hand towards the object, grasp involves the act of holding onto the object, and manipulation involves using the hands to perform specific actions or tasks with the object. Therefore, prehension is the correct answer that encompasses all three components.

77. The brain areas that are active during the early stage of learning are typically

Not the same as the areas active in the later stages of learning

The same as the areas active in the later stages of learning

Only those areas associated with cognitive and verbal activity

The same for the learning of all types of motor skills

During the early stage of learning, the brain goes through a process of acquiring new information and forming new neural connections. This process is typically associated with specific brain areas that are responsible for initial encoding and consolidation of the learned material. However, as learning progresses and becomes more proficient, the brain undergoes neuroplastic changes, and different areas become active. These later stages of learning involve the refinement and integration of skills, which may require the activation of different brain regions that are specialized for advanced processing and automation of the learned task.

Explanation

During the early stage of learning, the brain goes through a process of acquiring new information and forming new neural connections. This process is typically associated with specific brain areas that are responsible for initial encoding and consolidation of the learned material. However, as learning progresses and becomes more proficient, the brain undergoes neuroplastic changes, and different areas become active. These later stages of learning involve the refinement and integration of skills, which may require the activation of different brain regions that are specialized for advanced processing and automation of the learned task.

78. An important difference between the open- and closed-loop control systems is that the

Open-loop system involves feedback; the closed-loop system does not.

Closed-loop system involves movement commands; the open-loop system doesn't

Open-loop system involves movement commands; the closed-loop system doesn't

Closed-loop system involves feedback; the open-loop system does not.

In a closed-loop control system, feedback is used to continuously monitor the output and make adjustments to the input in order to maintain a desired output. This feedback allows the system to respond to changes and disturbances, ensuring accurate and precise control. On the other hand, an open-loop control system does not use feedback and relies solely on predetermined input commands. This means that an open-loop system cannot make adjustments based on the actual output, making it less accurate and more susceptible to disturbances. Therefore, the statement that "closed-loop system involves feedback; the open-loop system does not" accurately describes the difference between the two control systems.

Explanation

In a closed-loop control system, feedback is used to continuously monitor the output and make adjustments to the input in order to maintain a desired output. This feedback allows the system to respond to changes and disturbances, ensuring accurate and precise control. On the other hand, an open-loop control system does not use feedback and relies solely on predetermined input commands. This means that an open-loop system cannot make adjustments based on the actual output, making it less accurate and more susceptible to disturbances. Therefore, the statement that "closed-loop system involves feedback; the open-loop system does not" accurately describes the difference between the two control systems.

79. In a memory experiment, when information not to be recalled is presented after information to be recalled, the experiment is designed to test the effect of

Trace decay

Proactive interference

Retroactive interference

Context effects

The correct answer is retroactive interference. In this memory experiment, the presentation of new information after the information to be recalled is designed to test the effect of retroactive interference. Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with the recall of previously learned information. By presenting new information after the target information, the experiment aims to examine how the new information affects the ability to recall the original information.

Explanation

The correct answer is retroactive interference. In this memory experiment, the presentation of new information after the information to be recalled is designed to test the effect of retroactive interference. Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with the recall of previously learned information. By presenting new information after the target information, the experiment aims to examine how the new information affects the ability to recall the original information.

80. Which of the following is an essential component of the definition of learning?

It can be observed during practice

It can be directly observed

It results in relatively permanent improvement

It results in consistently correct performance

Learning is defined as a process that leads to relatively permanent improvement. This means that learning is not just a temporary change in behavior or performance, but rather a lasting change that can be observed over time. It is not necessary for the learning to result in consistently correct performance, as mistakes and errors can still occur during the learning process. However, the key aspect is that there is a noticeable and lasting improvement in the individual's abilities or knowledge.

Explanation

Learning is defined as a process that leads to relatively permanent improvement. This means that learning is not just a temporary change in behavior or performance, but rather a lasting change that can be observed over time. It is not necessary for the learning to result in consistently correct performance, as mistakes and errors can still occur during the learning process. However, the key aspect is that there is a noticeable and lasting improvement in the individual's abilities or knowledge.

81. Which of the following is not a part of a motor unit?

Muscle fiber

Dendrite

Interneuron

Axon

Motorneuron

An interneuron is not a part of a motor unit. A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates. The motor neuron sends signals from the central nervous system to the muscle fibers, causing them to contract. The dendrite and axon are both components of a motor neuron, while the muscle fiber is the target of the motor neuron's signals. However, an interneuron is a type of neuron that connects sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system, and it is not directly involved in the activation of muscle contraction.

Explanation

An interneuron is not a part of a motor unit. A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates. The motor neuron sends signals from the central nervous system to the muscle fibers, causing them to contract. The dendrite and axon are both components of a motor neuron, while the muscle fiber is the target of the motor neuron's signals. However, an interneuron is a type of neuron that connects sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system, and it is not directly involved in the activation of muscle contraction.

82. Which of the following is not classified as a “performance variable”?

Anxiety

Practice

Alertness

Fatigue

Environmental conditions

Practice is not classified as a "performance variable" because it is not a direct measure of an individual's performance. While practice can certainly impact performance, it is considered a separate factor that contributes to skill development and improvement. Performance variables typically refer to measurable factors that directly affect an individual's performance, such as anxiety, alertness, fatigue, and environmental conditions.

Explanation

Practice is not classified as a "performance variable" because it is not a direct measure of an individual's performance. While practice can certainly impact performance, it is considered a separate factor that contributes to skill development and improvement. Performance variables typically refer to measurable factors that directly affect an individual's performance, such as anxiety, alertness, fatigue, and environmental conditions.

83. What is the difference between “motor ability” and “skill”?

Motor ability is a personal characteristic; skill is a task

Motor ability is temporary; skill is enduring

Not everyone has skill, but everyone has some motor ability

Skill is temporary; motor ability is enduring

They mean the same thing

Motor ability refers to an individual's innate physical attributes and capabilities, such as strength, flexibility, and coordination. It is a personal characteristic that varies from person to person. On the other hand, skill refers to the ability to perform a specific task or activity effectively and efficiently. It involves the application of motor abilities in a specific context or domain. While motor ability is inherent and relatively stable, skill can be acquired and developed through practice and experience. Therefore, the given answer correctly distinguishes between motor ability as a personal characteristic and skill as a task or performance ability.

Explanation

Motor ability refers to an individual's innate physical attributes and capabilities, such as strength, flexibility, and coordination. It is a personal characteristic that varies from person to person. On the other hand, skill refers to the ability to perform a specific task or activity effectively and efficiently. It involves the application of motor abilities in a specific context or domain. While motor ability is inherent and relatively stable, skill can be acquired and developed through practice and experience. Therefore, the given answer correctly distinguishes between motor ability as a personal characteristic and skill as a task or performance ability.

84. Research has demonstrated that reaction time (RT) and movement time (MT) are

Independent motor abilities

Moderately related motor abilities

Highly related motor abilities

None of these

The research suggests that reaction time (RT) and movement time (MT) are independent motor abilities. This means that they are not strongly related to each other and can be considered as separate skills. This implies that an individual's performance in one of these abilities does not necessarily predict their performance in the other.

Explanation

The research suggests that reaction time (RT) and movement time (MT) are independent motor abilities. This means that they are not strongly related to each other and can be considered as separate skills. This implies that an individual's performance in one of these abilities does not necessarily predict their performance in the other.

85. Which of the following types of motor control theories emphasizes the role of a memory representation in the control of coordinated action?

Dynamic pattern theories

Motor program theories

Chaos theories

All of these

Motor program theories emphasize the role of a memory representation in the control of coordinated action. These theories propose that movements are controlled by pre-structured motor programs stored in memory, which can be executed automatically without the need for constant feedback. This memory representation allows for the execution of complex and coordinated movements, such as playing a musical instrument or typing on a keyboard, without the need to consciously plan and control each individual movement.

Explanation

Motor program theories emphasize the role of a memory representation in the control of coordinated action. These theories propose that movements are controlled by pre-structured motor programs stored in memory, which can be executed automatically without the need for constant feedback. This memory representation allows for the execution of complex and coordinated movements, such as playing a musical instrument or typing on a keyboard, without the need to consciously plan and control each individual movement.

86. Which of the following characteristics of learning best explains the description of the later stages of learning open skills in Gentile’s model?

Adaptability

Persistence

Improvement

Consistency

Stability

In Gentile's model, the later stages of learning open skills are best explained by adaptability. This means that as learners progress in their skill acquisition, they become more flexible and able to adjust their movements and strategies based on the changing demands of the task and the environment. This adaptability allows them to effectively respond to different situations and challenges, ultimately enhancing their performance in open skills.

Explanation

In Gentile's model, the later stages of learning open skills are best explained by adaptability. This means that as learners progress in their skill acquisition, they become more flexible and able to adjust their movements and strategies based on the changing demands of the task and the environment. This adaptability allows them to effectively respond to different situations and challenges, ultimately enhancing their performance in open skills.

87. Quantitative KR leads to better motor skill learning than qualitative KR.

True

False

Quantitative knowledge of results (KR) refers to receiving specific numerical feedback about the performance of a motor skill, such as the distance covered or the time taken. On the other hand, qualitative KR provides more general information about the quality or technique of the skill. The statement suggests that receiving quantitative KR leads to better motor skill learning compared to qualitative KR. This implies that having specific numerical feedback allows individuals to better understand their performance and make more accurate adjustments for improvement.

Explanation

Quantitative knowledge of results (KR) refers to receiving specific numerical feedback about the performance of a motor skill, such as the distance covered or the time taken. On the other hand, qualitative KR provides more general information about the quality or technique of the skill. The statement suggests that receiving quantitative KR leads to better motor skill learning compared to qualitative KR. This implies that having specific numerical feedback allows individuals to better understand their performance and make more accurate adjustments for improvement.

88. If you want to rapidly move the cursor on your computer screen to an icon, when during the movement of the cursor would you shift your visual point of gaze to the icon?

Just before the cursor reaches the icon

Just after the cursor reaches the icon

As soon as you initiate the cursor movement

At the same time as you reach the icon

When moving the cursor rapidly to an icon on the computer screen, shifting the visual point of gaze just before the cursor reaches the icon allows for better accuracy and precision. By anticipating the cursor's movement and shifting the visual focus ahead of time, the user can ensure that they are clicking on the correct icon without overshooting or missing it. This strategy helps to minimize errors and improve efficiency in navigating the computer interface.

Explanation

When moving the cursor rapidly to an icon on the computer screen, shifting the visual point of gaze just before the cursor reaches the icon allows for better accuracy and precision. By anticipating the cursor's movement and shifting the visual focus ahead of time, the user can ensure that they are clicking on the correct icon without overshooting or missing it. This strategy helps to minimize errors and improve efficiency in navigating the computer interface.

89. The identical elements theory for explaining why transfer occurs...

Applies to positive transfer

Applies to negative transfer

Is based on bilateral symmetry

Has not been supported by research

The identical elements theory suggests that transfer occurs when there are similarities between the original learning task and the new task. This theory applies specifically to positive transfer, where prior knowledge or skills learned in one context can enhance learning or performance in a new context. Positive transfer occurs when the similarities between the two tasks allow for the application of previously learned knowledge or skills to the new task, leading to improved performance.

Explanation

The identical elements theory suggests that transfer occurs when there are similarities between the original learning task and the new task. This theory applies specifically to positive transfer, where prior knowledge or skills learned in one context can enhance learning or performance in a new context. Positive transfer occurs when the similarities between the two tasks allow for the application of previously learned knowledge or skills to the new task, leading to improved performance.

90. If a fatigue condition depresses practice performance but not retention test performance, then fatigue would be called a

Learning variable

Performance and learning variable

Performance variable

Practice variable

Fatigue is considered a performance variable because it directly affects practice performance. It may cause a decrease in performance during practice sessions but does not have an impact on retention test performance. This suggests that fatigue is not influencing the learning process itself but rather the immediate execution of skills or tasks. Therefore, it can be categorized as a performance variable that affects the immediate performance but not the long-term retention of learned information or skills.

Explanation

Fatigue is considered a performance variable because it directly affects practice performance. It may cause a decrease in performance during practice sessions but does not have an impact on retention test performance. This suggests that fatigue is not influencing the learning process itself but rather the immediate execution of skills or tasks. Therefore, it can be categorized as a performance variable that affects the immediate performance but not the long-term retention of learned information or skills.

91. Because we can write our signature relatively legibly with a pen held by either hand, either foot, or even by our teeth, researchers often describe handwriting as a good example of Bernstein’s concept of motor

Complexity

Programs

Equivalence

Independence

The correct answer is equivalence. Handwriting can be done with various body parts, such as hands, feet, or even teeth, which shows that the motor programs for writing are equivalent across different body parts. This means that the same motor program can be executed by different effectors, highlighting the concept of equivalence in motor control.

Explanation

The correct answer is equivalence. Handwriting can be done with various body parts, such as hands, feet, or even teeth, which shows that the motor programs for writing are equivalent across different body parts. This means that the same motor program can be executed by different effectors, highlighting the concept of equivalence in motor control.

92. The general rule of thumb for predicting positive transfer between two motor skills is that the degree of positive transfer is related to the

Degree of similarity between the parts of the two skills

Degree of similarity of the performance contexts of the two skills

Amount of practice on each of the two skills

Number of component parts of the two skills

The correct answer is the degree of similarity between the parts of the two skills. Positive transfer between motor skills occurs when the skills share similar underlying components or movements. When the parts of two skills are similar, the knowledge and experience gained from practicing one skill can be applied to the other skill, leading to improved performance. The more similar the parts of the skills are, the greater the positive transfer is likely to be.

Explanation

The correct answer is the degree of similarity between the parts of the two skills. Positive transfer between motor skills occurs when the skills share similar underlying components or movements. When the parts of two skills are similar, the knowledge and experience gained from practicing one skill can be applied to the other skill, leading to improved performance. The more similar the parts of the skills are, the greater the positive transfer is likely to be.

93. Why is binocular vision superior to monocular vision for perceiving distance to objects and the size of objects?

Central vision is more precise than peripheral vision

Binoculars improve vision at distances

Having two views aids depth perception

Two eyes are better than one

A and B

Having two views aids depth perception because when we use both eyes to view an object, each eye receives a slightly different image. The brain then combines these two images to create a three-dimensional perception of depth. This is known as stereopsis and allows us to accurately perceive the distance to objects and the size of objects in our environment. Central vision being more precise than peripheral vision and binoculars improving vision at distances are not directly related to the advantage of having two views for depth perception.

Explanation

Having two views aids depth perception because when we use both eyes to view an object, each eye receives a slightly different image. The brain then combines these two images to create a three-dimensional perception of depth. This is known as stereopsis and allows us to accurately perceive the distance to objects and the size of objects in our environment. Central vision being more precise than peripheral vision and binoculars improving vision at distances are not directly related to the advantage of having two views for depth perception.

94. Why does negative transfer of learning occur?

Not enough practice of the original task

Too much practice of the original task

A familiar stimulus requires a new response

Lack of positive transfer feedback during practice

Negative transfer of learning occurs when a familiar stimulus requires a new response. This means that when individuals are faced with a situation that is similar to a task they have previously learned, but requires a different approach or response, they may struggle to adapt and perform effectively. This can happen if they have become too accustomed to a specific way of doing things and find it difficult to switch to a new response.

Explanation

Negative transfer of learning occurs when a familiar stimulus requires a new response. This means that when individuals are faced with a situation that is similar to a task they have previously learned, but requires a different approach or response, they may struggle to adapt and perform effectively. This can happen if they have become too accustomed to a specific way of doing things and find it difficult to switch to a new response.

95. When you walk across a street, the optical variable tau influences the initiation of your leg movement to step up onto the curb on the basis of the

Distance you are from the curb

Amount of time remaining to contact the curb

Width of the street

Height of the curb

The optical variable tau influences the initiation of leg movement to step up onto the curb based on the amount of time remaining to contact the curb. This means that as the time remaining to reach the curb decreases, the leg movement to step up onto the curb is initiated. The optical variable tau provides information about the time to contact an object, and in this case, it helps determine the timing of the leg movement to ensure a successful step onto the curb. The other options, such as distance, width of the street, and height of the curb, may also play a role in the decision-making process but are not specifically mentioned in the explanation.

Explanation

The optical variable tau influences the initiation of leg movement to step up onto the curb based on the amount of time remaining to contact the curb. This means that as the time remaining to reach the curb decreases, the leg movement to step up onto the curb is initiated. The optical variable tau provides information about the time to contact an object, and in this case, it helps determine the timing of the leg movement to ensure a successful step onto the curb. The other options, such as distance, width of the street, and height of the curb, may also play a role in the decision-making process but are not specifically mentioned in the explanation.

96. If you are standing with your arms at your side, and must move one arm as rapidly as possible to point to a target located at shoulder level in front of you, EMG would show that the muscles you activated first were the

Agonist arm muscles

Antagonist arm muscles

Postural leg muscles

Arm muscles of the opposite arm

not-available-via-ai

Explanation

not-available-via-ai

97. Central pattern generators, which are involved in the control of gait, are thought to be located primarily in the brain.

True

False

Central pattern generators are not primarily located in the brain. They are actually located in the spinal cord and are responsible for generating rhythmic patterns of muscle activity, such as walking or swimming. While the brain does play a role in coordinating and modulating these patterns, the central pattern generators themselves are located in the spinal cord.

Explanation

Central pattern generators are not primarily located in the brain. They are actually located in the spinal cord and are responsible for generating rhythmic patterns of muscle activity, such as walking or swimming. While the brain does play a role in coordinating and modulating these patterns, the central pattern generators themselves are located in the spinal cord.

98. To help beginning dancers learn the rhythmic structure of a dance routine, either auditory or visual demonstration will be similarly effective for learning.

True

False

Both auditory and visual demonstrations can be effective for learning the rhythmic structure of a dance routine. However, the statement suggests that they are equally effective, which is not necessarily true. Some individuals may learn better through auditory cues, while others may prefer visual cues. Additionally, the effectiveness of each method may vary depending on the individual's learning style and preferences. Therefore, it is incorrect to claim that both methods are equally effective for everyone.

Explanation

Both auditory and visual demonstrations can be effective for learning the rhythmic structure of a dance routine. However, the statement suggests that they are equally effective, which is not necessarily true. Some individuals may learn better through auditory cues, while others may prefer visual cues. Additionally, the effectiveness of each method may vary depending on the individual's learning style and preferences. Therefore, it is incorrect to claim that both methods are equally effective for everyone.

99. In dynamic pattern terminology, an attractor refers to a

Complex movement

State of coordination instability

Movement pattern stable state

Motor program

An attractor in dynamic pattern terminology refers to a movement pattern stable state. This means that when a system reaches an attractor, it settles into a stable and consistent movement pattern. The system may have multiple attractors, each representing a different stable state. These attractors can arise due to the interaction between various components and forces within the system, creating a predictable and repeatable pattern of movement.

Explanation

An attractor in dynamic pattern terminology refers to a movement pattern stable state. This means that when a system reaches an attractor, it settles into a stable and consistent movement pattern. The system may have multiple attractors, each representing a different stable state. These attractors can arise due to the interaction between various components and forces within the system, creating a predictable and repeatable pattern of movement.

100. Practice performance provides a reliable means of determining how well a person will perform in a transfer test situation.

True

False

Practice performance does not necessarily guarantee success in a transfer test situation. While practice can improve skills and familiarity with the test format, it does not guarantee that a person will perform well in a different test situation. Factors such as test anxiety, time pressure, and unfamiliar content can still impact performance in a transfer test. Therefore, the statement is false.

Explanation

Practice performance does not necessarily guarantee success in a transfer test situation. While practice can improve skills and familiarity with the test format, it does not guarantee that a person will perform well in a different test situation. Factors such as test anxiety, time pressure, and unfamiliar content can still impact performance in a transfer test. Therefore, the statement is false.

101. Which of these is a way to measure performance production?

Absolute error

Radar gun

Stopwatch

EMG

FMRI

EMG (Electromyography) is a way to measure performance production. It is a technique that measures the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles. By placing electrodes on the skin over the muscles of interest, EMG can detect and record the electrical signals generated during muscle contraction. This provides valuable information about muscle activity and performance, making it a useful tool in assessing and measuring performance production.

Explanation

EMG (Electromyography) is a way to measure performance production. It is a technique that measures the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles. By placing electrodes on the skin over the muscles of interest, EMG can detect and record the electrical signals generated during muscle contraction. This provides valuable information about muscle activity and performance, making it a useful tool in assessing and measuring performance production.

102. In lab 1 we used AE, VE and CE to measure performance in drawing 10cm lines blindfolded. Which of the following would represent a subject who always drew their line short with a high error?

High AE, Low CE, High VE

Low AE, High CE, Low VE

High AE, High CE, Low VE

Low AE, Low CE, High VE

A subject who always draws their line short with a high error would have a high absolute error (AE) because they consistently deviate from the target length. They would also have a high constant error (CE) because their errors are consistently in the same direction (short). However, they would have a low variable error (VE) because their errors are consistent and not random or unpredictable.

Explanation

A subject who always draws their line short with a high error would have a high absolute error (AE) because they consistently deviate from the target length. They would also have a high constant error (CE) because their errors are consistently in the same direction (short). However, they would have a low variable error (VE) because their errors are consistent and not random or unpredictable.

103. The generally accepted view about the direction of bilateral transfer between two limbs is that it is

Either symmetric or asymmetric, depending on the side dominance of the person

Either symmetric or asymmetric, the direction is equally distributed among the population

Asymmetric

Symmetric

The generally accepted view about the direction of bilateral transfer between two limbs is asymmetric. This means that the transfer of skills or abilities from one limb to another is not equal or balanced. It depends on the side dominance of the person, meaning that individuals who are right-handed will generally have better transfer of skills from their right limb to their left limb, while left-handed individuals will have better transfer from their left limb to their right limb. This suggests that the dominant limb has a greater influence on the non-dominant limb in terms of skill transfer.

Explanation

The generally accepted view about the direction of bilateral transfer between two limbs is asymmetric. This means that the transfer of skills or abilities from one limb to another is not equal or balanced. It depends on the side dominance of the person, meaning that individuals who are right-handed will generally have better transfer of skills from their right limb to their left limb, while left-handed individuals will have better transfer from their left limb to their right limb. This suggests that the dominant limb has a greater influence on the non-dominant limb in terms of skill transfer.

104. For skills that involve a starting signal and require movement as quickly as possible after this signal (e.g., swimming, sprint), the amount of time between the warning and start signal should be

The same for every start

Varied for every start

As constant as possible for every start

As short as possible for every start

For skills that involve a starting signal and require movement as quickly as possible after this signal, it is beneficial to vary the amount of time between the warning and start signal for every start. This variation helps to prevent anticipation and allows athletes to react quickly and explosively to the start signal. By changing the timing, athletes are forced to stay alert and react to the signal in real-time, enhancing their ability to start quickly and effectively. Consistently using the same timing can lead to predictability and a slower start. Therefore, varying the time between the warning and start signal is the best approach.

Explanation

For skills that involve a starting signal and require movement as quickly as possible after this signal, it is beneficial to vary the amount of time between the warning and start signal for every start. This variation helps to prevent anticipation and allows athletes to react quickly and explosively to the start signal. By changing the timing, athletes are forced to stay alert and react to the signal in real-time, enhancing their ability to start quickly and effectively. Consistently using the same timing can lead to predictability and a slower start. Therefore, varying the time between the warning and start signal is the best approach.

105. One of the current views of how we control prehension is that the transport and grasp phases function

As one unit

As two motor programs

Independently

Synergistically

The correct answer is "synergistically". This suggests that the transport and grasp phases of prehension work together in a coordinated and integrated manner. Rather than functioning as separate motor programs, they complement and enhance each other, resulting in a more efficient and effective control of prehension. This view highlights the interdependence and cooperation between these two phases in achieving successful grasping and manipulation of objects.

Explanation

The correct answer is "synergistically". This suggests that the transport and grasp phases of prehension work together in a coordinated and integrated manner. Rather than functioning as separate motor programs, they complement and enhance each other, resulting in a more efficient and effective control of prehension. This view highlights the interdependence and cooperation between these two phases in achieving successful grasping and manipulation of objects.

106. According to a dynamic pattern view of motor control, skilled action occurs on the basis of action units which

Act according to motor program commands

Receive commands from a control executive

Self organize

Receive feedback as movement occurs

According to a dynamic pattern view of motor control, skilled action occurs through the self-organization of action units. This means that instead of being controlled by specific motor program commands or receiving commands from a control executive, skilled actions emerge spontaneously through the interactions and coordination of different action units. This view emphasizes the role of feedback and the ability of the motor system to adapt and adjust movements in real-time based on the ongoing sensory information received during the movement.

Explanation

According to a dynamic pattern view of motor control, skilled action occurs through the self-organization of action units. This means that instead of being controlled by specific motor program commands or receiving commands from a control executive, skilled actions emerge spontaneously through the interactions and coordination of different action units. This view emphasizes the role of feedback and the ability of the motor system to adapt and adjust movements in real-time based on the ongoing sensory information received during the movement.

107. Learners in the later stages of learning typically “freeze degrees of freedom” in their attempt to control the multiple degrees of freedom of a complex motor skill.

True

False

In the later stages of learning, learners do not typically "freeze degrees of freedom" in their attempt to control the multiple degrees of freedom of a complex motor skill. Instead, they learn to coordinate and utilize these degrees of freedom more effectively and efficiently. Freezing degrees of freedom would limit their ability to perform the skill fluidly and adapt to different situations. Therefore, the correct answer is false.

Explanation

In the later stages of learning, learners do not typically "freeze degrees of freedom" in their attempt to control the multiple degrees of freedom of a complex motor skill. Instead, they learn to coordinate and utilize these degrees of freedom more effectively and efficiently. Freezing degrees of freedom would limit their ability to perform the skill fluidly and adapt to different situations. Therefore, the correct answer is false.

108. The transfer-appropriate-processing theory accounts for why positive transfer occurs by stating that positive transfer is due to the similarity of the

Movements of two motor skills

Cognitive processes required by two motor skills

Components of two motor skills

Environmental context characteristics of two motor skills

The transfer-appropriate-processing theory suggests that positive transfer occurs because there is similarity in the cognitive processes required by two motor skills. This means that if the cognitive processes involved in performing one motor skill are similar to those required for another motor skill, there is a higher likelihood of positive transfer between the two skills. In other words, the ability to transfer knowledge or skills from one motor task to another is influenced by the similarity of the cognitive processes involved in performing those tasks.

Explanation

The transfer-appropriate-processing theory suggests that positive transfer occurs because there is similarity in the cognitive processes required by two motor skills. This means that if the cognitive processes involved in performing one motor skill are similar to those required for another motor skill, there is a higher likelihood of positive transfer between the two skills. In other words, the ability to transfer knowledge or skills from one motor task to another is influenced by the similarity of the cognitive processes involved in performing those tasks.

109. The action effect hypothesis suggests optimal performance results from

Internal focus of attention

Increased arousal

External focus of attention

Decreased arousal

The action effect hypothesis proposes that optimal performance is achieved when individuals focus their attention externally, rather than internally. This means that instead of focusing on their own movements or body sensations, individuals should direct their attention towards the desired outcome or the effects of their actions. By doing so, they can enhance their performance and improve their ability to execute skilled movements or tasks. This external focus of attention allows individuals to rely on automatic processes and allows for more efficient movement execution.

Explanation

The action effect hypothesis proposes that optimal performance is achieved when individuals focus their attention externally, rather than internally. This means that instead of focusing on their own movements or body sensations, individuals should direct their attention towards the desired outcome or the effects of their actions. By doing so, they can enhance their performance and improve their ability to execute skilled movements or tasks. This external focus of attention allows individuals to rely on automatic processes and allows for more efficient movement execution.

110. A schedule that organizes the practice of several skill variations in a serial order is an example of a practice schedule that involves a low amount of contextual interference.

True

False

A schedule that organizes the practice of several skill variations in a serial order actually involves a high amount of contextual interference. This is because the practice of different skills is mixed together, causing interference and making it more challenging for the learner to differentiate between the skills and adapt to changing contexts. Therefore, the statement that it involves a low amount of contextual interference is incorrect.

Explanation

A schedule that organizes the practice of several skill variations in a serial order actually involves a high amount of contextual interference. This is because the practice of different skills is mixed together, causing interference and making it more challenging for the learner to differentiate between the skills and adapt to changing contexts. Therefore, the statement that it involves a low amount of contextual interference is incorrect.

111. Which of the following is not a potential benefit of motor control theories?

Create new intervention strategies

Predict effectiveness of intervention strategies

Measure movement accuracy in different contexts

Develop systematic approach to increase skill performance

Motor control theories have several potential benefits, including the ability to create new intervention strategies, predict the effectiveness of intervention strategies, and develop a systematic approach to increase skill performance. However, measuring movement accuracy in different contexts is not specifically mentioned as a potential benefit of motor control theories.

Explanation

Motor control theories have several potential benefits, including the ability to create new intervention strategies, predict the effectiveness of intervention strategies, and develop a systematic approach to increase skill performance. However, measuring movement accuracy in different contexts is not specifically mentioned as a potential benefit of motor control theories.

112. Which of the following was not a theory discussed in chapter 9 of how attention affects motor performance?

Bottleneck theories

Filter theories

Multiple resource capacity theories

Central resource capacity theories

Dual task theories

The correct answer is Dual task theories. In chapter 9 of how attention affects motor performance, the theories discussed include bottleneck theories, filter theories, multiple resource capacity theories, and central resource capacity theories. However, dual task theories were not discussed in this chapter. These theories typically focus on the idea that attention is a limited resource and that performing multiple tasks simultaneously can lead to a decrease in performance on one or both tasks.

Explanation

The correct answer is Dual task theories. In chapter 9 of how attention affects motor performance, the theories discussed include bottleneck theories, filter theories, multiple resource capacity theories, and central resource capacity theories. However, dual task theories were not discussed in this chapter. These theories typically focus on the idea that attention is a limited resource and that performing multiple tasks simultaneously can lead to a decrease in performance on one or both tasks.

113. The most commonly accepted reason serial discrete motor skills seem to be forgotten more quickly than continuous motor skills is that serial discrete motor skills are

Largely verbal

Not attention demanding

Very complex

Difficult to perform

Serial discrete motor skills are largely verbal, which means they involve the use of language and verbal cues. Verbal information is often processed differently in the brain compared to non-verbal information, and it is known to be more susceptible to forgetting. Continuous motor skills, on the other hand, do not rely heavily on verbal cues and are more reliant on the coordination of movements. Therefore, the verbal component of serial discrete motor skills may contribute to their quicker forgetting compared to continuous motor skills.

Explanation

Serial discrete motor skills are largely verbal, which means they involve the use of language and verbal cues. Verbal information is often processed differently in the brain compared to non-verbal information, and it is known to be more susceptible to forgetting. Continuous motor skills, on the other hand, do not rely heavily on verbal cues and are more reliant on the coordination of movements. Therefore, the verbal component of serial discrete motor skills may contribute to their quicker forgetting compared to continuous motor skills.

114. The area of the cortex that is commonly considered to be the location for the transition between the perception of sensory information and the resulting action is the

Sensory cortex

Association cortex

Motor cortex

Sensorimotor complex

The association cortex is commonly considered to be the location for the transition between the perception of sensory information and the resulting action. This is because the association cortex is responsible for integrating and processing information from various sensory areas, and it plays a crucial role in higher-order cognitive functions such as perception, attention, memory, and decision-making. It receives input from the sensory cortex and sends output to the motor cortex, which then initiates the appropriate motor response.

Explanation

The association cortex is commonly considered to be the location for the transition between the perception of sensory information and the resulting action. This is because the association cortex is responsible for integrating and processing information from various sensory areas, and it plays a crucial role in higher-order cognitive functions such as perception, attention, memory, and decision-making. It receives input from the sensory cortex and sends output to the motor cortex, which then initiates the appropriate motor response.

115. A recognition test is an example of an implicit memory test.

True

False

A recognition test is not an example of an implicit memory test because a recognition test involves the explicit recall of previously encountered information, while an implicit memory test measures the influence of past experiences on current behavior without conscious awareness or intentional retrieval. Therefore, the statement is false.

Explanation

A recognition test is not an example of an implicit memory test because a recognition test involves the explicit recall of previously encountered information, while an implicit memory test measures the influence of past experiences on current behavior without conscious awareness or intentional retrieval. Therefore, the statement is false.

116. In a two-hand aiming task in which one must move to a target that has an ID of 4, and the other hand must simultaneously move to a target that has an ID of 2, when will each hand arrive at the target?

The hand with the ID of 4 will arrive much earlier than the hand with the ID of 2

The hand with the ID of 2 will arrive much earlier than the hand with the ID of 4

The preferred hand will arrive first regardless of the ID

The two hands will arrive at approximately the same time

The question states that both hands are moving simultaneously to their respective targets. Therefore, it can be inferred that both hands will arrive at their targets at approximately the same time.

Explanation

The question states that both hands are moving simultaneously to their respective targets. Therefore, it can be inferred that both hands will arrive at their targets at approximately the same time.

117. Which of the following describes why verbal labels and visual metaphoric imagery aid the learning of complex motor skill? They

Direct the performer's attention to the movements to be performed

Increase the cognitive processing requirement for learning the skill

Change an abstract array of movements to a more meaningful form

Reduce the complexity of the skill that needs to be performed

Verbal labels and visual metaphoric imagery aid the learning of complex motor skills by changing an abstract array of movements to a more meaningful form. This means that instead of just memorizing a series of movements, the performer can associate the movements with something more concrete and relatable, making it easier to understand and remember. This aids in the learning process and helps the performer better comprehend and execute the motor skill.

Explanation

Verbal labels and visual metaphoric imagery aid the learning of complex motor skills by changing an abstract array of movements to a more meaningful form. This means that instead of just memorizing a series of movements, the performer can associate the movements with something more concrete and relatable, making it easier to understand and remember. This aids in the learning process and helps the performer better comprehend and execute the motor skill.

118. If you see where your golf ball goes after you hit it, the visual feedback you receive is known as knowledge of results.

True

False

The statement suggests that if you can see where your golf ball goes after you hit it, it is known as knowledge of results. However, this is incorrect. Knowledge of results refers to receiving feedback about the outcome or result of an action, such as knowing the score or distance achieved in golf. Simply seeing where the ball goes does not necessarily provide this type of feedback. Therefore, the correct answer is False.

Explanation

The statement suggests that if you can see where your golf ball goes after you hit it, it is known as knowledge of results. However, this is incorrect. Knowledge of results refers to receiving feedback about the outcome or result of an action, such as knowing the score or distance achieved in golf. Simply seeing where the ball goes does not necessarily provide this type of feedback. Therefore, the correct answer is False.

119. Research evidence shows that you can hinder the learning of a motor skill by a beginner by delaying the augmented feedback too long.

True

False

Research evidence suggests that delaying augmented feedback for a beginner can actually enhance their learning of a motor skill. This is because immediate feedback allows beginners to make necessary corrections and adjustments to their movements, leading to more effective skill acquisition. Delaying feedback for too long can result in the learner not receiving timely information about their performance, which can hinder their progress and hinder the learning process. Therefore, the statement "you can hinder the learning of a motor skill by a beginner by delaying the augmented feedback too long" is false.

Explanation

Research evidence suggests that delaying augmented feedback for a beginner can actually enhance their learning of a motor skill. This is because immediate feedback allows beginners to make necessary corrections and adjustments to their movements, leading to more effective skill acquisition. Delaying feedback for too long can result in the learner not receiving timely information about their performance, which can hinder their progress and hinder the learning process. Therefore, the statement "you can hinder the learning of a motor skill by a beginner by delaying the augmented feedback too long" is false.