Final Exam Review Part 1

Sun spots are not caused by humans and therefore do not directly impact the environment. Sun spots are dark, cooler areas on the sun's surface that are caused by magnetic activity. While they can have some indirect effects on Earth's climate, such as affecting the amount of solar radiation reaching the planet, they are not a result of human activities. On the other hand, surface warming, rising CO2 levels, and increased aerosols are all impacts on the environment that can be caused by human activities such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation.

The aim of historical geology is to understand the origin of Earth and its development through time. This involves studying the materials composing the Earth, as well as the processes that operate beneath and upon Earth's surface. By examining the geological record and studying plate tectonics, historical geologists can piece together the history of the Earth, including its formation and the changes it has undergone over millions of years.

During metamorphism, all of the mentioned changes can occur in a rock. Metamorphism refers to the process in which rocks undergo physical and chemical changes due to high pressure, temperature, and fluid activity. These changes can result in alterations in the mineralogy, texture, and chemical composition of the rock. Different minerals may form or recrystallize, the texture can become more foliated or granular, and the chemical composition may be modified through the addition or removal of elements. Therefore, all of these changes are possible during metamorphism.

The number of protons in an element is determined by its atomic number. The atomic number represents the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. It is a unique identifier for each element on the periodic table. The mass number, on the other hand, represents the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Atomic structure and atomic strata are not relevant to determining the number of protons in an element.

During the Precambrian era, the supercontinent Gondwana consisted of South America, Antarctica, and Africa. This means that all of the given continents were part of Gondwana at the end of the Precambrian period.

When rocks exhibit the same magnetism as the present magnetic field, they are said to possess normal polarity, whereas rocks exhibiting the opposite magnetism are said to have reverse polarity.

The correct answer is "all of the above" because all three options - salt dome, anticline, and fault trap - are commonly known types of oil traps. Oil traps are geological formations or structures that prevent the upward migration of oil and gas, causing them to accumulate in a reservoir. Salt domes, anticlines, and fault traps are all examples of such formations that can trap oil and gas underground, making them important targets for oil exploration and production.

According to the Nebular Theory, our solar system is believed to be 4.6 billion years old. This theory suggests that the solar system formed from a giant rotating cloud of gas and dust known as the solar nebula. Over time, this nebula collapsed under its own gravity, forming a spinning disk. The Sun formed at the center of this disk, while the remaining material came together to form the planets, moons, asteroids, and comets. By studying the ages of the oldest rocks on Earth and moon samples brought back by astronauts, scientists have determined that the formation of our solar system occurred approximately 4.6 billion years ago.

Lumber is considered renewable because it comes from trees, which can be replanted and grown again. This means that as long as responsible forestry practices are followed, the supply of lumber can be sustained over time. Trees can be harvested and new ones can be planted to replace them, ensuring a continuous cycle of growth and harvest. This makes lumber a sustainable resource that can be replenished, making it renewable.

An aquitard is a layer of rock or sediment that has low permeability, meaning it does not allow water to easily flow through it. It acts as a barrier, preventing the movement of water between aquifers or restricting the flow of groundwater. This explanation fits the given correct answer, aquitard.

Earthquakes can occur at various depths within the Earth's crust and upper mantle. The correct answer of 700km suggests that earthquakes can reach depths of up to 700 kilometers. These deep earthquakes are typically associated with subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is being forced beneath another. The intense pressure and friction at these depths can lead to the release of seismic energy, resulting in earthquakes. It is important to note that shallow earthquakes, occurring within the upper 20 kilometers of the Earth's surface, are more common and often more destructive.

Caverns are most commonly formed below the water table. The water table is the level below the Earth's surface where the ground is saturated with water. When water seeps through the ground and dissolves soluble rock, such as limestone, it creates underground voids and passages. Over time, these voids can grow larger and form caverns. The water table provides the necessary conditions for the formation of caverns as it allows for the movement of water and the dissolution of rock.

Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons (which determines the element) but different numbers of neutrons. This means that isotopes have the same number of electrons as an element, as the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons in a neutral atom. However, the number of neutrons can vary among isotopes, resulting in different atomic masses.

Liquefaction is a phenomenon that occurs when saturated soil loses its strength and behaves like a liquid during an earthquake or other seismic activity. Coastal cities are more prone to liquefaction because they are often built on loose, sandy soils or reclaimed land, which can easily become saturated with water. The combination of loose soil and the presence of water increases the likelihood of liquefaction happening during an earthquake, making coastal cities more vulnerable to this phenomenon.

The Big Bang theory is a scientific explanation for the origin of the universe. It proposes that the universe began as a singularity, a tiny, hot, and dense point, approximately 13.8 billion years ago. This singularity then rapidly expanded and continues to expand, resulting in the formation of galaxies, stars, and other celestial bodies. The theory is supported by various pieces of evidence, such as the observed cosmic microwave background radiation and the redshift of distant galaxies. It does not explain the formation of the solar system, the Earth, or the evolution of species, as those are separate scientific theories and processes.

Beaches and tidal flats are transitional sedimentary environments because they are located at the interface between land and sea. They experience both marine and continental influences, with the deposition of sediments from both sources. This transitional zone is characterized by the fluctuation of water levels and the mixing of marine and terrestrial sediments, resulting in unique sedimentary features and processes.

Passive margins are found along the edges of tectonic plates where there is no significant tectonic activity. These margins are characterized by a large continental shelf, which is a gently sloping extension of the continent into the ocean. This shelf is created by the accumulation of sediment over millions of years. Unlike active margins, passive margins do not have volcanoes or deep-ocean trenches, as there is no subduction or volcanic activity occurring. Therefore, the presence of a large continental shelf is a common feature for passive margins.

Chemical weathering refers to the process in which rocks undergo a transformation into new compounds due to chemical reactions. This type of weathering occurs when minerals in the rocks react with water, oxygen, or other substances in the environment. As a result of these reactions, the rock structure may be altered, leading to the formation of new compounds. Unlike physical weathering, which involves the breakdown of rocks without changing their chemical composition, chemical weathering causes a chemical transformation of the rock.

The given correct answer is "Moho". The Moho, also known as the Mohorovičić discontinuity, is the boundary between the Earth's crust and the underlying mantle. At this boundary, there is a significant change in the speed at which seismic waves, including P-waves, travel. P-waves typically travel at about 6 km/s in the crust and then abruptly increase to about 8 km/s in the mantle. Therefore, the Moho is the most appropriate explanation for the given information about the change in P-wave velocity at this boundary.

Fold and thrust belts are indeed found in Japan. These geological features are formed by the compression of tectonic plates, resulting in the folding and thrusting of rock layers. Japan is located in a tectonically active region known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, where several tectonic plates converge. The collision and subduction of these plates have led to the formation of fold and thrust belts in Japan, making the statement true.

The opening of a new basin, such as the Red Sea, begins with the formation of a continental rift. A continental rift occurs when the Earth's crust starts to pull apart, creating a gap or rift. This rift allows magma from the mantle to rise to the surface, forming a volcano. Over time, the continued separation of the crust creates a larger gap, leading to the formation of a mountain range. Finally, as the crust continues to separate, a mid-ocean ridge is formed, marking the opening of a new basin.

A drainage basin is a geographical area where all the water from rainfall or snowmelt drains into a common outlet, such as a river or lake. The boundary of a drainage basin is called a "divide." This divide separates one drainage basin from another, determining the direction in which water flows. It is an imaginary line that marks the highest point or ridge where water on one side flows into one basin, while water on the other side flows into a different basin. Therefore, the correct answer is "divide."

Marble is a nonfoliated rock because it does not exhibit any foliation or layering. It is formed from the metamorphism of limestone or dolomite, and its crystals are randomly oriented, giving it a uniform and non-layered appearance. Unlike phyllite, mica schist, and slate, which are all foliated rocks, marble does not show any alignment of minerals or bands. Therefore, marble is the correct answer as a nonfoliated rock.

A tenfold increase in wave amplitude corresponds to an increase of 1 on the magnitude scale. This means that the magnitude of the wave increases by a factor of 1 when the amplitude increases by a factor of 10. The magnitude scale is logarithmic, so each unit increase represents a tenfold increase in wave amplitude. Therefore, a tenfold increase corresponds to an increase of 1 on the magnitude scale.

A terrane refers to accreted crustal blocks that have a geologic history distinct from the surrounding or adjoining crustal blocks. These blocks may have different rock types, ages, or tectonic histories compared to the surrounding crust. Terranes are often the result of tectonic processes like subduction, where pieces of crust are scraped off one tectonic plate and added to another. The concept of terranes helps geologists understand the complex history and evolution of Earth's crust, particularly in areas where multiple tectonic plates have interacted.

The elastic rebound theory explains that when stress builds up along a fault line, the rocks on either side of the fault are deformed and stored with potential energy. Eventually, the stress becomes too great and the rocks rupture, releasing the stored energy. As the rocks break and slip past each other, they spring back into their original position due to their elastic properties. This sudden release of energy is what causes an earthquake.

The principle of inclusion states that rocks or fragments of rocks found within another rock are older than the rock that contains them. This is because the rock containing the fragments must have formed after the fragments were already present. Therefore, if a rock is found to have embedded rocks within it, those embedded rocks must be older than the surrounding rock.

The correct answer is asthenosphere. The asthenosphere is a soft, weak layer located about 410km deep in Earth's interior. It is composed of partially molten rock that allows the lithospheric plates to move and slide on top of it. This layer is responsible for the movement of tectonic plates and plays a crucial role in shaping the Earth's surface through processes like plate tectonics and volcanic activity.

S waves, also known as shear waves, are a type of seismic wave that causes particles to move perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. They can only travel through solids and are slower than P waves. Since the question states that "these interior waves are shake waves," it implies that the waves mentioned are causing shaking or movement within the interior. Among the options provided, S waves fit this description as they are responsible for the shaking and movement of the ground during an earthquake.

The Appalachian Mountains are not considered a young mountain belt because they were formed around 480 million years ago during the Paleozoic era. They have since undergone significant erosion and are now considered a mature mountain range. In contrast, the North American Cordillera, Himalayas, and Alps are all considered young mountain belts because they are still actively being uplifted and are geologically active.

Richter magnitude measures the ground shaking caused by an earthquake, while Moment Magnitude measures the total energy released during the earthquake.

The "D" layer is significant in plate tectonics because it is the graveyard of subducted lithosphere. This means that when one tectonic plate is forced beneath another in a process called subduction, the subducted lithosphere sinks into the mantle and accumulates in the D layer. This layer acts as a repository for the remnants of subducted lithosphere, providing valuable evidence of past tectonic activity. By studying the composition and characteristics of the D layer, scientists can gain insights into the history and dynamics of plate tectonics.

The Basin and Ridge Province has normal faulting. Normal faulting occurs when the hanging wall moves downward relative to the footwall. In the Basin and Ridge Province, the crust has been stretched and thinned, causing the rocks to break and slide along normal faults. This type of faulting is characteristic of areas undergoing tensional stress, such as the Basin and Ridge Province, where the crust is being pulled apart. The other options, the Himalayas, Japan, and the San Andreas, are associated with other types of faulting, such as thrust faulting, subduction zone faulting, and strike-slip faulting, respectively.

Pahoehoe is the correct answer because it refers to a type of lava flow that has smooth surfaces and often appears like twisted braids of rope. This type of lava flow is characterized by its low viscosity, which allows it to flow smoothly and form these unique shapes. Pahoehoe lava flows are commonly found in Hawaiian volcanoes and are a result of basaltic lava cooling and solidifying.

Mountain height is limited by erosion, isostasy, and gravitational collapse. Deposition, on the other hand, refers to the process of sediment or other materials being added to a landform. This can actually contribute to the growth and height of a mountain over time. Therefore, deposition does not limit mountain height, making it the correct answer.

Igneous rocks that have cooled very fast will have a texture that is aphanitic. Aphanitic texture refers to fine-grained rocks that have cooled quickly, resulting in small mineral grains that are not visible to the naked eye. This texture is typically observed in volcanic rocks that have been rapidly cooled on the Earth's surface or in shallow depths.

The abyssal plain is not a major province of the ocean floor. The ocean floor is divided into several major provinces, including the continental margin, deep-ocean basin, and mid-ocean ridges. The abyssal plain, on the other hand, is a flat, sediment-covered region of the ocean floor that lies between the continental margin and the mid-ocean ridges. While it is an important feature of the ocean floor, it is not considered one of the major provinces.

During the Precambrian era, Earth's cratons formed. The Precambrian era is the longest span of Earth's history, lasting from about 4.6 billion years ago to 541 million years ago. Cratons are the oldest and most stable parts of Earth's continental crust, typically found in the interiors of continents. They formed through a process of accretion and collision of smaller land masses, followed by extensive erosion and sedimentation. The Precambrian era was a time of significant geological activity, which led to the formation of these ancient and stable landmasses known as cratons.

A fault-block mountain is formed when large blocks of the Earth's crust are uplifted along faults. The Basin and Ridge Province is a region in the western United States that is characterized by fault-block mountains. This region is known for its alternating basins and mountain ranges, which are formed by the uplift of crustal blocks along normal faults. The Himalayas, Alps, and Urals are not fault-block mountains; they are formed by different geological processes such as plate tectonics and collision of continental plates.

Glass is not a mineral because it lacks a repetitive atomic structure. Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids with a definite chemical composition and a regular, ordered arrangement of atoms. Glass, on the other hand, is an amorphous solid, meaning it does not have a regular, repeating pattern of atoms. It is formed when molten material cools rapidly, preventing the atoms from arranging themselves into a crystalline structure. Therefore, glass does not meet the criteria to be classified as a mineral.