EPPP Additional Key Questions: Neurotransmitters

Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the likelihood of messages being sent from one neuron to the next. They work by hyperpolarizing the postsynaptic membrane, making it less likely for an action potential to be generated. This inhibition helps regulate and control neural activity, preventing excessive or unwanted signaling. In contrast, excitatory neurotransmitters increase the likelihood of messages being sent by depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane and promoting the generation of action potentials.

Glutamate is specifically an excitatory neurotransmitter. It is the most abundant neurotransmitter in the central nervous system and plays a crucial role in various brain functions such as learning, memory, and synaptic plasticity. Glutamate activates excitatory receptors, leading to the depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane and the initiation of an action potential. It is involved in the transmission of signals between neurons and is essential for normal brain function.

Serotonin, GABA, and endorphins are all inhibitory types of neurotransmitters. Inhibitory neurotransmitters work to inhibit or decrease the activity of neurons in the brain. They help to regulate and balance the overall excitatory activity in the brain, preventing excessive stimulation. Serotonin, GABA, and endorphins play important roles in mood regulation, pain perception, and overall brain function.

Glutamate is a neurotransmitter that is closely related to GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid). Both glutamate and GABA are involved in the regulation of neuronal activity in the brain. While GABA acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, reducing neuronal activity, glutamate acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter, increasing neuronal activity. They both play important roles in various brain functions, such as cognition, memory, and the regulation of mood and emotions. Therefore, glutamate can be considered a cousin to GABA in terms of their similar functions and involvement in neurotransmission.

Nicotine receptors are excitatory because they promote the release of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, that stimulate the brain and increase activity. When nicotine binds to these receptors, it triggers a series of chemical reactions that ultimately lead to the release of excitatory neurotransmitters, causing an increase in neuronal activity and overall excitation in the brain.

GABA, or gamma-aminobutyric acid, is involved with falling asleep. GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain that helps to calm and relax the nervous system. It reduces neuronal excitability and promotes feelings of relaxation and drowsiness. By increasing GABA activity, it can help to induce sleep and improve sleep quality. Therefore, GABA is involved in the process of falling asleep.

Muscarinic receptors are inhibitory. These receptors are a type of acetylcholine receptor found in the central and peripheral nervous system. When acetylcholine binds to muscarinic receptors, it inhibits the activity of the target cell, leading to a decrease in neuronal activity. This can result in various physiological effects, such as decreased heart rate, smooth muscle relaxation, and decreased glandular secretion.

Elevated levels of dopamine in the mesolimbic system reinforces actions of stimulate drugs, opiates, alcohol, and nicotine. This suggests that when dopamine levels are increased in this specific area of the brain, it strengthens the rewarding effects of these substances, leading to a higher likelihood of continued use and potential addiction.

ACh, or acetylcholine, plays a crucial role in various functions of the Central Nervous System (CNS). It is involved in the regulation of REM sleep, which is the stage of sleep associated with dreaming. ACh also helps in the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle, ensuring proper timing and duration of sleep. Additionally, ACh is important for memory formation and retrieval, as it is involved in the communication between neurons in the CNS. Therefore, the correct answer is Central Nervous System.

Excessive activity at the dopamine synapse can contribute to the production of actions that resemble the effects of stimulant drugs, opiates, alcohol, and nicotine. This excessive activity is observed in conditions such as schizophrenia and Tourette's syndrome. In these disorders, the abnormal dopamine levels can lead to symptoms like hallucinations, delusions, and involuntary movements. This suggests that dopamine dysregulation plays a significant role in the manifestation of these conditions.

Glutamate is a neurotransmitter that is involved in various cognitive functions, including memory and learning. It is responsible for the formation and strengthening of neural connections, which are essential for the encoding and retrieval of information. Glutamate receptors in the brain play a crucial role in synaptic plasticity, a process that underlies learning and memory. Therefore, the presence of glutamate in the brain is necessary for optimal memory and learning abilities.

The peripheral nervous system is responsible for transmitting signals between the central nervous system and the rest of the body. It consists of nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body, including muscles. Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter that is released by motor neurons in the peripheral nervous system. In the context of this question, ACh acts on the muscles to cause them to contract, which is one of its primary functions in the peripheral nervous system.

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Parkinson's disease is characterized by the degeneration of dopamine receptors in the brain, particularly in the substantia nigra. The substantia nigra is a region in the brain that plays a crucial role in movement control. When these dopamine receptors degenerate, it leads to a decrease in dopamine levels, which in turn results in the motor symptoms associated with Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia.

The correct answer is Huntington's and anxiety disorders. In Huntington's disease, there is a decrease in the levels of GABA, which is an inhibitory neurotransmitter. This leads to an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory signals in the brain, contributing to the symptoms of the disease. Similarly, low levels of GABA have been implicated in anxiety disorders, as GABA helps to regulate anxiety and stress responses in the brain.

The degeneration of dopamine receptors in the Substantia Nigra contributes to Parkinson's symptoms.

Elevated levels of Serotonin have been found to be associated with various mental health conditions such as schizophrenia, autism, and eating disorders. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in mood regulation, and imbalances in serotonin levels can contribute to the development or exacerbation of these conditions.

The breakdown of ACh is commonly found in Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects the brain and is characterized by memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes. ACh, or acetylcholine, is a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in memory and cognitive function. In Alzheimer's, there is a decrease in the production and release of ACh, leading to impaired communication between nerve cells and the breakdown of cognitive abilities.

Elevated activity at the dopamine synapse contributes to Schizophrenia and Tourette's. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in various brain functions, including regulating movement, emotions, and cognition. An increase in dopamine activity can disrupt the balance of neurotransmitters in the brain, leading to symptoms associated with Schizophrenia and Tourette's, such as hallucinations, delusions, and involuntary movements.

The Catecholamine Hypothesis suggests that depression is caused by a deficiency of certain neurotransmitters called catecholamines, such as norepinephrine and dopamine, in the brain. On the other hand, mania is believed to be caused by an excess of these neurotransmitters. This hypothesis is based on the observation that drugs that increase the levels of catecholamines can alleviate depression, while drugs that decrease their levels can induce mania.

Norepinephrine is also known as the "Fight or Flight" hormone. This is because it is released by the body in response to stress or danger, preparing the individual to either confront the threat (fight) or escape from it (flight). Norepinephrine increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood flow to the muscles, providing the body with the necessary energy and alertness to respond effectively in a stressful situation.

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Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that is involved in regulating various functions in the body. It is known to play a role in mood regulation, hunger, temperature regulation, sexual activity, arousal, sleep, aggression, migraine headaches, movement, and memory. Serotonin levels can affect mood, appetite, sleep patterns, and overall well-being. Imbalances in serotonin levels have been linked to conditions such as depression, anxiety, and migraines. Therefore, the correct answer includes all the functions mentioned as serotonin is involved in regulating all of them.