Anatomy & Physiology & Pathology

The most superficial layer of the skin is the stratum corneum. This layer is composed of dead skin cells that have undergone a process called keratinization, where they have become tough and waterproof. The stratum corneum acts as a protective barrier, preventing the entry of harmful substances and pathogens into the body. It also helps to retain moisture and regulate temperature.

Capillaries are the smallest and thinnest blood vessels in the body. Their walls are only one cell thick, allowing for the exchange of nutrients and waste products between the bloodstream and the surrounding tissues. This exchange occurs through the process of diffusion, as oxygen and nutrients move from the capillaries into the tissues, while carbon dioxide and waste products move from the tissues into the capillaries to be transported away. Arterioles and venules are larger blood vessels that connect arteries and veins respectively, but the actual exchange of nutrients and waste occurs in the capillaries.

Systole is the correct answer because it refers to the contraction phase of the heartbeat, specifically the contraction of the heart muscles to pump blood out into the arteries. Diastole, on the other hand, refers to the relaxation phase of the heartbeat, when the heart muscles are at rest and the chambers are filling with blood. Therefore, systole is the word that means to contract.

The correct answer is 126. The appendicular skeleton is made up of the bones of the limbs and their associated girdles. This includes the bones of the arms, legs, shoulders, and hips. There are a total of 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton.

The left side is more muscular to give blood the power to travel around the body.

The clear layer or stratum lucidum is a specific layer of the epidermis that is only present in thick skin. Thick skin is found in areas of the body that experience a lot of friction or pressure, such as the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. This layer is composed of dead skin cells that are densely packed and filled with a protein called keratin, which provides additional protection to these areas. Therefore, it is true that the clear layer or stratum lucidum is only found in thick skin.

The legs are not part of the axial skeleton. The axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage, which form the central axis of the body. The legs, on the other hand, are part of the appendicular skeleton, which includes the bones of the limbs and their associated girdles.

Ossification is the process of producing new bone cells. During ossification, specialized cells called osteoblasts produce new bone tissue, which then replaces existing cartilage or fibrous tissue. This process is essential for bone growth, repair, and remodeling. Mitosis and meiosis are processes of cell division, not specific to bone cell production. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration and is not directly related to bone cell production.

Tendons are a type of connective tissue that link bones and muscles together. They are strong, flexible cords that attach muscles to bones, allowing for movement and providing stability to the skeletal system. Tendons are composed of collagen fibers, which are highly organized and resistant to tension. They play a crucial role in transmitting the force generated by muscles to the bones, enabling movement and facilitating joint stability.

Dyspepsia is another term used to refer to indigestion. Indigestion is a common condition characterized by discomfort or pain in the upper abdomen, bloating, and a feeling of fullness after eating. It can be caused by various factors such as overeating, eating too quickly, consuming fatty or spicy foods, or certain medical conditions. Dyspepsia is often used interchangeably with indigestion to describe this condition. Acid reflux and flatulence are related but different conditions that may have similar symptoms but distinct underlying causes.

Hyaline, yellow elastic, and white fibrous are examples of different types of cartilage. Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue that provides support and structure to various parts of the body. Hyaline cartilage is found in the nose, trachea, and ends of long bones. Yellow elastic cartilage is found in the ears and epiglottis. White fibrous cartilage is found in the intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis. These different types of cartilage have varying degrees of flexibility and strength, allowing them to fulfill their specific functions in the body.

The first cervical bone is called the Atlas. It is located at the top of the spinal column, just below the skull. The Atlas is unique because it lacks a body and instead consists of a ring-like structure that supports the skull and allows for the nodding motion of the head. It is named after the mythological figure Atlas, who was said to carry the weight of the world on his shoulders, symbolizing the important role of the Atlas bone in supporting the head.

Osmosis is the correct answer because it is the movement of water molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. This process occurs across a semi-permeable membrane, allowing water to pass through but not solute particles. Osmosis is important for maintaining balance in cells and is commonly observed in biological systems, such as the movement of water in plant roots or the absorption of water in the intestines.

The urinary system is responsible for maintaining the pH balance of the body's fluid systems. It does this through the regulation of electrolyte and acid-base balance. The kidneys filter waste products from the blood and excrete them in the form of urine, which helps to regulate the pH of the body's fluids. Additionally, the kidneys reabsorb bicarbonate ions and excrete hydrogen ions to help maintain the acid-base balance of the body. Therefore, the urinary system plays a crucial role in controlling the pH values of the body's fluid systems.

Water is reabsorbed in the colon. The colon is the final part of the digestive system, responsible for absorbing water and electrolytes from the undigested food material that passes through it. This reabsorption process helps in maintaining the body's fluid balance and preventing dehydration. The small intestine primarily absorbs nutrients, while the stomach is mainly involved in the initial digestion of food.

Veins are the type of blood vessels that contain valves. Valves are important for preventing the backflow of blood and ensuring that it flows in one direction towards the heart. This is necessary because veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart, and the valves help to maintain the proper flow of blood against gravity. Arteries, on the other hand, do not have valves as they carry oxygenated blood away from the heart. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels and do not have valves either.

Collagen and elastin are found in the reticular layer of the dermis. The reticular layer is the deeper layer of the dermis and is responsible for providing strength, support, and elasticity to the skin. Collagen is a protein that gives the skin its structure and helps with wound healing, while elastin allows the skin to stretch and bounce back to its original shape. These two components are crucial for maintaining the integrity and elasticity of the skin.

Onychocryptosis refers to the condition of an ingrowing toenail, where the edge of the toenail grows into the surrounding skin, causing pain, inflammation, and sometimes infection. This condition commonly occurs in the big toe and can be caused by improper nail trimming, tight footwear, or genetic factors. It is important to treat ingrowing toenails promptly to prevent further complications and relieve discomfort.

The cuneiform bone is found in the ankle. The ankle is a complex joint that connects the leg to the foot. It is made up of several bones, including the cuneiform bones. These bones are located in the tarsal region of the foot, specifically in the middle and inner part of the foot. They play a crucial role in providing stability and support to the foot, allowing for proper movement and weight-bearing.

The correct answer is 16 because when we exhale, the air we breathe out contains approximately 16% oxygen. The remaining 84% is mostly nitrogen, with small amounts of other gases.

Tinea capitis is a fungal infection that affects the scalp and hair. It is commonly known as ringworm of the head. This condition is characterized by itchy, scaly patches on the scalp, hair loss, and sometimes the presence of small black dots. It is more common in children and can be spread through direct contact with an infected person or contaminated objects. Treatment usually involves antifungal medications, both oral and topical, to eliminate the infection and promote hair regrowth.

Starch is the correct answer because it is a complex carbohydrate that starts to be digested in the mouth. The salivary glands in the mouth release an enzyme called amylase, which begins the breakdown of starch into smaller molecules called maltose. This process is the first step in the digestion of carbohydrates and allows for the absorption of nutrients later in the digestive system.

Systemic circulation carries blood between the body and the heart. This type of circulation is responsible for delivering oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body and returning deoxygenated blood back to the heart. It involves the arteries, veins, and capillaries throughout the body, ensuring that all organs and tissues receive the necessary nutrients and oxygen for their proper functioning.

The correct answer is Lumbar because the spinal cord extends through the lumbar section of vertebrae. The spinal cord is a long, cylindrical bundle of nerves that starts from the base of the brain and extends down to the lower back. It passes through the vertebral column, which is made up of different sections, including the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal vertebrae. The lumbar section is located in the lower back region and is where the spinal cord continues its journey downwards.

The enzyme breaks down proteins.

The term "stripped" is not a recognized type of muscle. The other options, skeletal, cardiac, and visceral, are all types of muscles that exist in the human body. Skeletal muscles are responsible for voluntary movements, cardiac muscles are found in the heart and control its contractions, and visceral muscles are found in the organs and control involuntary movements. However, "stripped" does not correspond to any known type of muscle.

The liver is located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen. This is the area of the abdomen that is located on the right side, just below the ribcage. The liver is the largest internal organ in the body and plays a vital role in various bodily functions such as detoxification, metabolism, and production of bile.

Phlebitis is the correct answer because it refers to the inflammation of a vein. This condition occurs when a blood clot forms in a vein, causing redness, swelling, and pain in the affected area. Deep vein thrombosis and embolism are related conditions that can result from untreated phlebitis. Tachycardia, on the other hand, is a rapid heart rate and is not directly related to inflammation inside a vein.

The myocardium is the correct answer because it is the layer of the heart that is composed of muscle tissue and is responsible for the contraction of the heart. It is the thickest layer of the heart and helps to pump blood throughout the body. The pericardium is the protective outer layer of the heart, while the endocardium is the innermost layer that lines the chambers and valves of the heart.

The valve found between the right atrium and the right ventricle is called the tricuspid valve. This valve has three cusps or flaps that open and close to regulate the flow of blood from the atrium to the ventricle. When the right atrium contracts, the tricuspid valve opens, allowing blood to flow into the right ventricle. When the right ventricle contracts, the tricuspid valve closes to prevent blood from flowing back into the atrium. This ensures that blood flows in one direction, from the atrium to the ventricle, facilitating efficient circulation.

Fat has to enter the lymphatic system rather than the circulatory system because it is too large to be directly absorbed into the bloodstream. The lymphatic system is responsible for transporting large molecules, such as fats, from the small intestine to the bloodstream. The fats are first broken down into smaller molecules called fatty acids and glycerol, which are then absorbed by the lymphatic system through specialized vessels called lacteals. These molecules are eventually released into the bloodstream through the thoracic duct, where they can be transported to cells throughout the body.

The pericardium is an example of a serous membrane. Serous membranes line the cavities of the body and cover the organs within those cavities. They consist of two layers, the parietal layer which lines the cavity, and the visceral layer which covers the organs. The pericardium specifically is the serous membrane that surrounds and protects the heart.

Lysosomes are organelles that contain enzymes to break up waste materials and cellular debris. They function as the recycling centers of the cell, breaking down molecules such as proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates into smaller components that can be reused by the cell or eliminated as waste. Lysosomes play a crucial role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and are involved in various cellular processes, including autophagy, which is the process of degrading and recycling damaged organelles and proteins. Therefore, the correct answer is lysosome.

A hordoleum is a term used to describe a stye, which is a small, painful lump that forms on the inside or outside of the eyelid. It is typically caused by a bacterial infection in the oil glands of the eyelid. Styes can be red, swollen, and tender to the touch. They usually resolve on their own within a few days or weeks, but warm compresses and good eyelid hygiene can help alleviate the symptoms.

The liver is responsible for desaturating fats. It plays a key role in lipid metabolism, including the breakdown and synthesis of fats. Desaturation refers to the process of converting saturated fatty acids into unsaturated fatty acids by adding double bonds. This is an important step in the metabolism of fats, as it affects their structure and function in the body. The liver carries out this desaturation process, along with various other metabolic functions, making it the correct answer to the question.

The correct answer is Stratum granulosum. This is the layer of the skin where cells undergo the process of keratinization, which is the formation of the tough protein keratin. As cells move from the Stratum germinativum to the Stratum granulosum, they begin to produce keratin and other proteins, causing them to become flattened and filled with granules. These granules contain enzymes and lipids that help to waterproof the skin and provide protection against external factors.

Eccrine glands are found all over the body, including the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. These glands are responsible for producing sweat, which helps regulate body temperature. Unlike sebaceous glands, which produce oil, and apocrine glands, which are found in specific areas like the armpits and groin, eccrine glands are distributed throughout the entire body.

The shaft of a long bone is called the diaphysis. This is the long, cylindrical, and main portion of the bone that provides support and stability. It is made up of compact bone tissue and contains the medullary cavity, which houses the bone marrow. The diaphysis is responsible for transmitting forces from one end of the bone to the other, allowing for movement and weight-bearing. The epiphysis refers to the ends of the long bone, while the periosteum is the outer covering of the bone.

Mastication is an example of physical digestion.

The spine is made up of 33 vertebrae, but only 24 of them are moveable. The remaining 9 vertebrae are fused together to form the sacrum and coccyx, which are immovable bones located at the base of the spine. Therefore, the correct answer is 24.

Cellulitis is an infection that affects the deeper layers of the skin and the underlying tissue. It is typically caused by bacteria entering through a break in the skin, such as a cut or wound. Symptoms of cellulitis include redness, swelling, warmth, and pain in the affected area. If left untreated, cellulitis can spread and lead to more serious complications.

The skeleton does not store fat. Fat is primarily stored in adipose tissue, which is found throughout the body but is not a function of the skeleton. The skeleton's main functions include providing support, protection, and movement for the body, as well as producing blood cells and storing minerals like calcium and phosphorus.

The ileum is the part of the small intestine that absorbs nutrients. It is the final section of the small intestine, located between the jejunum and the large intestine. The inner lining of the ileum contains numerous microscopic finger-like projections called villi, which greatly increase the surface area for absorption. These villi have specialized cells that absorb nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, and digested food particles into the bloodstream. Therefore, the correct answer is the ileum.

The bones of the skull are examples of fibrous joints because they are connected by fibrous connective tissue, specifically sutures. Fibrous joints allow for very little movement, if any at all, and provide stability and protection for the brain.

Bradycardia is a condition characterized by a slower than normal heart rate. A heart rate of less than 50 beats per minute is considered bradycardia. This can be caused by various factors such as certain medications, heart diseases, electrolyte imbalances, and aging. When the heart beats too slowly, it may not pump enough blood to meet the body's needs, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, dizziness, and shortness of breath. Therefore, a heart rate of less than 50 beats per minute indicates bradycardia.

The left ventricle is the chamber of the heart that pumps blood into the aorta. It is responsible for pumping oxygenated blood from the lungs to the rest of the body. The left ventricle has thicker walls compared to the other chambers of the heart, as it needs to generate enough force to propel blood throughout the entire body.

Diathrotic is another term for synovial joint. Synovial joints are characterized by the presence of a synovial cavity, which is filled with synovial fluid that lubricates the joint and allows for smooth movement. These joints are highly mobile and allow for a wide range of movement in multiple directions. Examples of synovial joints include the shoulder joint, hip joint, and knee joint.

Veins have the largest lumen among the three types of blood vessels. The lumen refers to the central opening within a blood vessel through which blood flows. Veins are responsible for carrying deoxygenated blood back to the heart from various parts of the body. Due to their larger lumen, veins are able to accommodate a higher volume of blood and have lower resistance to blood flow compared to arteries and capillaries.

The left atrium receives blood from the lungs. After oxygenation in the lungs, the blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins and enters the left atrium. From there, it is pumped into the left ventricle and then circulated to the rest of the body. The left atrium acts as a reservoir for oxygenated blood before it is sent out to supply oxygen to the tissues.

The tempro-mandibular joint refers to the joint connecting the temporal bone of the skull to the mandible (lower jaw). This joint allows for movement in multiple directions, including rotation, translation, and gliding. A condyloid joint is a type of synovial joint that allows for movement in two planes, making it the most suitable classification for the tempro-mandibular joint.

Areolar tissue is a loose connective tissue that binds the layers of the skin to muscles. It is composed of collagen and elastic fibers, which provide support and flexibility to the skin. Areolar tissue also contains blood vessels and immune cells, which help in the repair and defense of the skin. Therefore, areolar tissue is responsible for connecting the skin to the underlying muscles.