Organizational Behaviour Chapter 3

The recency effect refers to the tendency for individuals to remember and give more weight to information that is presented last or most recently. This effect occurs because our short-term memory is more likely to retain information that is fresh in our minds. Therefore, when we use the most up-to-date information, it dominates our perceptions and influences our decision-making and judgments.

Selective attention is the process of attending to some information received by our senses and ignoring other information. This process is influenced by characteristics of the object being perceived, such as its size, intensity, motion, repetition, and novelty. Additionally, characteristics of the perceiver, such as emotional markers like worry, happiness, and boredom, play an important role in selective attention. This process helps us to filter and store information based on our preferences and priorities.

Stereotyping is the process of assigning traits to people based on their membership in a social category. It involves categorizing individuals based on easily observable information and simplifying our understanding of the world. However, it is important to note that stereotypes do not accurately describe every person in that social category. While it may be difficult to prevent the activation of stereotypes, we can minimize the application of this type of information.

The false-consensus effect refers to the tendency to overestimate the degree to which others share our beliefs, attitudes, and characteristics. This can occur when we assume that our own thoughts and behaviors are typical and representative of the larger population. In other words, we project our own beliefs onto others, assuming that they think and act in the same way. This cognitive bias can lead to misunderstandings, conflicts, and difficulties in accurately perceiving the perspectives of others.

Meaningful interaction refers to the process of engaging with others in a way that fosters understanding, empathy, and mutual respect. According to the contact hypothesis, meaningful interaction can help improve self-awareness and mutual understanding between individuals. By working towards a shared goal and treating everyone with equal status, people are more likely to overcome prejudices and biases. This suggests that meaningful interaction plays a crucial role in reducing negative attitudes and promoting positive relationships among individuals.

A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when our expectations about another person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations. In this context, high-expectancy employees are more likely to learn more skills and knowledge compared to low-expectancy employees. This effect is stronger at the beginning of the relationship when several people hold the same perception of the individual and among people with a history of low achievement. Therefore, leaders need to develop and maintain a positive, yet realistic, expectation toward all employees to avoid the self-fulfilling prophecy phenomenon.

The primacy effect refers to the tendency to give more weight to the initial information we receive about someone when forming an opinion of them. This means that the first impression we have of someone can have a lasting impact on how we perceive and judge them, even if additional information contradicts our initial impression. This effect can be influenced by factors such as the order in which information is presented or the salience of the initial information.

The Johari Window is a model that represents mutual understanding and encourages disclosure and feedback. It helps individuals increase their open area (known to self and others) and reduce the blind (known to others but not to self), hidden (known to self but not to others), and unknown areas (unknown to self and others). By using this model, individuals can have meaningful interactions and enhance their self-awareness and interpersonal relationships.

Social learning theory

The given explanation suggests that the correct answer is "attribution process". The attribution process refers to the perceptual process of determining whether a behavior or event is caused by internal or external factors. It involves considering factors such as the person's ability, motivation, lack of resources, other people, or luck. People rely on consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus to make attributions about someone's behavior.

Knowledge use refers to the application of intelligence in ways that add value to the organization and its stakeholders. This means that individuals are able to take the knowledge they have acquired and effectively utilize it to make informed decisions, solve problems, and contribute to the overall success of the organization. By actively applying their knowledge, individuals can help drive innovation, improve processes, and achieve desired outcomes. This ultimately leads to positive outcomes for the organization and its stakeholders, making knowledge use a crucial aspect of organizational success.

The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to attribute someone's behavior to their personal characteristics or traits, rather than considering the situational factors that may have influenced their behavior. This occurs because observers often lack visibility into the external constraints that may have affected the person's actions. In other words, people tend to overemphasize internal factors and underestimate external factors when explaining someone's behavior. This bias can lead to misunderstandings and judgments about others based solely on their perceived character, without considering the context in which their behavior occurred.

The halo effect refers to the tendency to form a positive overall impression of a person based on one prominent characteristic or positive trait. This means that if we perceive someone as attractive, intelligent, or successful, we are more likely to assume that they possess other positive qualities as well. This cognitive bias can influence our judgments and evaluations of others, leading us to overlook their flaws or negative traits. The halo effect can have a significant impact on how we perceive and interact with individuals in various contexts, such as in relationships, hiring decisions, or social interactions.

Social Identity

The given answer, "mental models," refers to the visual or relational images that we create in our minds to represent the external world. These mental models help us fill in the missing pieces of information and make assumptions about the world around us. They play a crucial role in the attribution process, categorization, perception, and selective attention. By using mental models, we are able to make sense of our surroundings and understand how things are connected or related to each other.

The given description suggests that the culture of the organization encourages learning and growth. It values learning opportunities and encourages employees to question traditional practices and take reasonable risks. This indicates a focus on continuous improvement and a willingness to experiment and make mistakes in order to discover new and better ways of doing things. Therefore, the correct answer is learning orientation, as it best aligns with the characteristics described in the given statement.

Perception refers to the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us. It involves noticing and categorizing information, as well as interpreting it based on our existing knowledge. This process allows us to understand and make sense of our surroundings and the events happening around us.

Explicit knowledge refers to knowledge that can be easily articulated and codified, such as facts, theories, and procedures. The given statement suggests that what we learn from reading in a book is only a small part of the knowledge available, implying that it is explicit knowledge. This implies that the information gained from reading is limited and does not encompass the entirety of knowledge on a particular subject.

Contingencies of reinforcement (behaviour modifcation)

Confirmation bias refers to the tendency to selectively pay attention to and favor information that aligns with our preexisting beliefs, values, and assumptions. This bias leads us to screen out information that contradicts our established views and seek out information that confirms our self-concept. It can prevent us from considering alternative perspectives and hinder our ability to make objective judgments. Confirmation bias can influence our decision-making processes and limit our ability to critically evaluate information.

Social Identity

Social learning theory

Contingencies of reinforcement (behaviour modifcation)

Social Identity

Also known as operant conditioning and reinforcement theory.

The self-serving bias refers to the tendency to attribute favorable outcomes to internal factors (such as our own abilities or efforts) and failures to external factors (such as bad luck or difficult circumstances). This bias allows individuals to maintain a positive self-image and protect their self-esteem. By attributing success to themselves and failure to external factors, individuals can enhance their sense of competence and control over their lives. This bias can also lead to a distorted perception of reality, as it can prevent individuals from accurately assessing their own strengths and weaknesses.

Contingencies of reinforcement (behaviour modifcation)

Tacit knowledge refers to knowledge that is not easily articulated or expressed in words, but rather embedded in our actions and ways of thinking. It is not something that can be easily taught or transmitted through explicit instruction, but rather acquired through observation and experience. This type of knowledge is often difficult to formalize or document, as it is deeply ingrained in an individual's subconscious and is developed through meaningful interactions with others. Therefore, the correct answer is tacit knowledge.

Social learning theory

Contingencies of reinforcement (behaviour modifcation)

Categorical thinking refers to the process of organizing people and objects based on their similarities or proximity. It involves grouping things together based on shared characteristics or categories. This process is mostly unconscious and helps in organizing and making sense of the world around us. It allows us to quickly classify and understand information, making it easier to interpret incoming stimuli. Categorical thinking also involves emotional markers, which are quick judgments about whether the incoming information is good or bad for us.

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of a person's interaction with the environment. This change can be observed through the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or behaviors. Learning can occur through various processes such as conditioning, observation, or experience, and it plays a crucial role in human development and adaptation to the environment. It is a fundamental process that allows individuals to acquire and apply knowledge, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.