Psyc 3390 - Quiz # 3

Classical conditioning is the process used in Pavlov's famous demonstrations of learning. In these experiments, Pavlov conditioned dogs to associate a neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a bell) with a reflexive response (such as salivating). Over time, the dogs learned to anticipate the reflexive response when the neutral stimulus was presented alone. This process of learning through association became known as classical conditioning. It involves pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally elicits a response, leading to the neutral stimulus eventually eliciting the response on its own.

The children in grades 2 and 3 who underwent the intervention program experienced a decrease in their level of aggressiveness over the following two years. This decrease was observed when comparing them to the children who did not participate in the program.

Sally having an external orientation on the locus of control continuum means that she believes that external factors, such as luck or other people's actions, have a significant influence on her life. Therefore, she would be less likely to make a statement like "Hard work and perseverance pay off," as it implies that personal effort and determination are the main factors for success. Sally is more likely to attribute her successes or failures to external factors beyond her control rather than her own actions or abilities.

When given the opportunity, violent video game players tend to respond to someone who had insulted them by giving louder and longer blasts of noise compared to participants who played a nonviolent game. This suggests that exposure to violent video games may increase aggression and the willingness to retaliate aggressively when provoked.

The given statement "It is necessary that I get perfect grades in school" reflects an irrational belief. Irrational beliefs are distorted and unrealistic thoughts that can lead to negative emotions and self-defeating behaviors. In this case, the belief that getting perfect grades is necessary implies an unrealistic expectation and puts unnecessary pressure on oneself. This irrational belief can lead to negative emotional consequences such as anxiety, stress, and disappointment if one does not achieve perfect grades.

The cognitive approach has been criticized for not being needed to explain individual differences in behavior. This suggests that some critics believe that the cognitive approach does not provide sufficient insight or understanding into why individuals behave differently from one another. They may argue that other approaches, such as social or biological, are more effective in explaining these differences.

According to Bandura's social learning theory, for a person to imitate an aggressive act they have observed, they must not only pay attention to the act and its consequences, but also be able to remember it. This suggests that memory plays a crucial role in the learning and imitation of behaviors. Therefore, the correct answer is that the person must also be able to remember the act to imitate it.

Thorndike's observation of cats escaping from a "puzzle box" to obtain a piece of fish led him to develop the theory known as the law of effect. According to this law, behaviors that are followed by positive consequences or rewards are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors that are followed by negative consequences or punishments are less likely to be repeated. This theory emphasizes the role of consequences in shaping and influencing behavior.

The given answer, "a negative cognitive style," is the most appropriate explanation for the psychological effects of physical and emotional abuse on women. This suggests that these women tend to have a pessimistic or negative way of thinking, which may contribute to their deeper depression. This negative cognitive style can influence their interpretation of events, leading to false interpretations since the trauma. Therefore, this answer aligns with the context provided in the question.

According to Skinner, when someone says she is talkative whenever happy, it means that the person is simply labeling her talkativeness as being associated with happiness. This does not imply that happiness is the cause of the person's talkativeness or that talkativeness is the cause of the person's happiness. It suggests that the person is attributing her talkativeness to her state of happiness, but it does not provide an explanation for the talkativeness itself.

According to self-efficacy theory, one assumption is that there is a distinction between believing that something is possible and believing that one has the ability to make it happen. This belief in one's own capability to achieve desired outcomes is referred to as efficacy expectation. It is the extent to which individuals believe in their own capacity to bring about desired results.

The androgyny model is the best fit for Sally's viewpoint because it emphasizes the importance of individuals being able to exhibit both feminine and masculine behaviors depending on the situation. This model suggests that the most well-adjusted people in society are those who possess a combination of traditionally masculine and feminine traits, rather than strictly adhering to societal expectations of gender roles.

Children who had watched high amounts of television were more likely to have been convicted for crimes as adults. This suggests that excessive TV viewing during childhood may have a negative impact on their behavior and increase their likelihood of engaging in criminal activities later in life.

Kelly suggests that to obtain a sense of predictability, we engage in template matching. Template matching refers to the process of comparing incoming information with pre-existing templates or mental models. By using templates, we can quickly recognize patterns and make predictions based on past experiences. This approach allows us to find similarities between new situations and familiar ones, enabling us to anticipate outcomes and make informed decisions. Template matching helps us create a sense of predictability by relying on established patterns and templates in our thinking and decision-making processes.

Personal constructs are mental frameworks or categories that we use to interpret and make sense of the world around us. By using personal constructs, we are able to analyze and understand events that occur in our lives. This allows us to interpret the meaning behind these events and make predictions about future outcomes. Therefore, the statement that we use personal constructs to interpret and predict events aligns with Kelly's theory.

Operant conditioning is the process by which gender-role socialization takes place. This process involves learning through rewards and punishments, where individuals are reinforced or discouraged based on their behavior. Through operant conditioning, individuals learn and internalize gender-specific behaviors, attitudes, and expectations that are considered appropriate for their gender. This process occurs through reinforcement and punishment from the environment, such as receiving praise for conforming to gender norms or facing criticism for deviating from them. Therefore, operant conditioning plays a significant role in shaping and reinforcing gender roles in society.

The correct answer is "stop moving when placed in a shuttle-box situation". This is because dogs exposed to aversive stimuli that they could not escape learned to become passive and stop moving when placed in a shuttle-box situation. This behavior is known as learned helplessness, where the dogs have learned that their actions have no effect on the outcome, leading them to give up and become immobile.

Research has shown that women have a tendency to remember more details and have better recall of emotional experiences compared to men. This could be attributed to various factors, including differences in brain structure and hormonal influences. Additionally, societal expectations and gender roles may also play a role in shaping the way men and women process and remember emotional events. Overall, studies suggest that women have a stronger ability to recall and retain information related to emotional experiences compared to men.

Bandura's research on observational learning in children suggests that whether a child performs an aggressive act depends on whether the model's behavior is reinforced or punished. This means that if the child observes that the model's aggressive behavior is rewarded or reinforced, they are more likely to imitate and perform the aggressive act. On the other hand, if the model's aggressive behavior is punished, the child is less likely to imitate and perform the aggressive act. The amount of social encouragement the child has received to be aggressive and how extremely aggressive the behavior is are not mentioned as factors influencing the child's performance of aggressive acts in Bandura's research.

Humans can learn to be helpless through various ways. One way is by being told they are helpless, which can lead to a belief that they have no control over their situation. Observational learning is another way, where individuals observe others being helpless and adopt a similar mindset. Lastly, classical conditioning can also contribute to learned helplessness, as repeated negative experiences can condition individuals to believe that their actions have no impact on the outcome. Therefore, all of the above options can lead to humans learning to be helpless.

A person who is extreme in their gender-role would likely identify certain kinds of cars as masculine. This is because extreme adherence to gender roles often involves associating certain traits or characteristics with specific genders. In this case, the person would likely believe that certain cars possess traits or characteristics that are traditionally associated with masculinity, such as power, strength, or aggression.

The repertory grid is a method used by Kelly to assess personality. It involves asking individuals to compare and contrast different elements or constructs, such as people or situations, and rate them based on their personal experiences and perceptions. This method helps to uncover the individual's underlying cognitive structures and how they organize and make sense of the world. By analyzing the patterns and themes that emerge from the ratings, Kelly's repertory grid allows for a deeper understanding of an individual's personality and their unique way of perceiving and interpreting their environment.

A person who scores low on both masculine and feminine scales of the gender-role inventory would fall under the category of "undifferentiated." This means that the person does not exhibit strong characteristics or behaviors typically associated with either masculinity or femininity. They may possess a more neutral or balanced combination of traits, not conforming to traditional gender roles.

People with an internal locus of control may be healthier than people with an external locus of control because they tend to perform more preventative behaviors. This means that they are more likely to engage in activities such as exercising regularly, eating a balanced diet, getting regular check-ups, and taking necessary precautions to maintain their health. By being proactive and taking responsibility for their own well-being, individuals with an internal locus of control are more likely to prevent illnesses and maintain good health.

When constructs fail us in predicting events, it means that our existing frameworks or theories are not sufficient to explain or understand the situation. In order to improve our predictions, new constructs or theories need to be constantly generated to replace the old ones that have proven to be inadequate. This process of generating new constructs allows us to adapt and evolve our understanding of the world, enabling us to make better predictions in the future.

According to personal construct theory, anxiety occurs when one cannot predict future events. This is because uncertainty about the future can lead to feelings of unease and discomfort. When individuals are unable to anticipate or forecast what may happen, it can create a sense of insecurity and fear. This lack of predictability disrupts their construct system and introduces ambiguity, which triggers anxiety.

The given answer states that according to the behavioral approach, personality is the consistent patterns of behavior we engage in. This means that our personality is determined by the behaviors that we consistently exhibit. The behavioral approach focuses on observable behaviors and believes that these behaviors are shaped by our environment and experiences. Therefore, the consistent patterns of behavior we engage in are seen as the key aspect of our personality according to this approach.

The police officer is using punishment to modify George's behavior. Punishment refers to the application of an aversive consequence in response to a behavior, with the aim of decreasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. In this case, the suspension of George's driving privileges serves as a punishment for running a red light, with the intention of discouraging him from repeating the behavior in the future.

People act in violent ways that may not have been shown in the stimulus means that individuals can imitate aggressive behavior even if they have not directly witnessed it. This suggests that imitation of aggression can occur based on other factors such as personal experiences, media exposure, or cultural influences. It implies that the scope of imitation is not limited to what is explicitly shown in the stimulus, but can extend to other forms of violent behavior as well.

Research has shown that men have better recall of impersonal events than women. This could be due to several factors such as differences in cognitive processing or socialization. Men may be more focused on factual information and details, which are often associated with impersonal events. On the other hand, women may have better recall of personal and emotional events, as they tend to be more attentive to interpersonal relationships and emotional experiences. However, it is important to note that individual differences and cultural factors can also influence recall abilities.

The behavioral/social learning approach to personality is criticized for several reasons. Firstly, behaviorists rejected free will as a determinant of behavior, which limits the understanding of individual agency and decision-making. Secondly, the approach does not give adequate attention to the role of heredity in shaping personality traits, ignoring the influence of genetics on behavior. Lastly, behavior therapists may distort the real therapy issues by focusing too narrowly on behavior, neglecting other important factors such as emotions and cognition. Therefore, all of the above criticisms contribute to the argument against the behavioral/social learning approach to personality.

The cognitive approach to depression suggests that processing information through the depressive schema can lead to various negative outcomes. It can cause people to become depressed by reinforcing negative thoughts and emotions. It can also lead to the generation of even more depressing thoughts, creating a cycle of negativity. Additionally, it can cause individuals to ignore or discount positive information, further perpetuating their depressive state. Therefore, all of the given options are correct explanations of the effects of processing information through the depressive schema.

Both animals exposed to inescapable shock and depressed humans show similar changes in neurotransmitters and receptors. This suggests that their brain chemistry is affected in a similar way, potentially leading to similar behavioral and emotional responses. This similarity in neurotransmitter and receptor changes may contribute to the shared characteristics of continued efforts to escape adversity until exhaustion and the potential for increased agitation and aggression.

The correct answer is shaping. Shaping is a technique used in operant conditioning where desired behavior is reinforced gradually by rewarding successive approximations of the behavior. In this scenario, the baseball trainer is working with the player to improve his hitting by gradually increasing the number of hits each week. By reinforcing and rewarding the player for each improvement, the trainer is shaping the player's hitting skills over time.

Cognitive therapy focuses on the idea that inappropriate thoughts are the cause of disorders. This therapy approach suggests that negative or irrational thoughts can lead to negative emotions and behaviors. By identifying and challenging these thoughts, individuals can change their thinking patterns and improve their mental well-being. Therefore, cognitive therapy aims to help individuals recognize and replace their inappropriate thoughts with more rational and positive ones.

Jessica's surprise most likely results from a violation of her professor's schema. A schema is a mental framework or concept that helps individuals organize and interpret information about the world. In this case, Jessica's schema for a professor's office likely includes the expectation of books. The absence of books in her professor's office violates this schema, leading to her surprise.

The research on the possible selves of juvenile delinquents revealed that a significant portion, more than one-third, had developed a possible self of being a criminal. This suggests that a considerable number of these individuals had internalized a criminal identity or saw themselves engaging in criminal behavior in the future. Additionally, the research also found that while some had developed a possible self of being a rapist, it was only a few, indicating that criminal identity was more prevalent than specifically identifying as a rapist. Furthermore, it was observed that many of the juvenile delinquents had developed possible selves related to positive goals such as having a job and doing well in school.

To obtain a complete understanding of aggressive behavior, it is important to examine aggressions from a variety of theoretical perspectives. This means considering different viewpoints and theories to gain a comprehensive understanding of the underlying factors and motivations behind aggressive behavior. By exploring multiple perspectives, we can gain a more holistic understanding of aggression and its various causes and manifestations. Focusing on just one aspect, such as unconscious motives, evolutionary basis, or cognitions, would limit our understanding and potentially overlook important factors contributing to aggressive behavior.