Psyc 100 - Final Exam Multiple Choice (Weeks 12-24)

Implicit measures are less vulnerable to social desirability concerns than explicit measures because implicit measures assess attitudes that are unconscious or automatic, making it difficult for individuals to intentionally manipulate their responses to appear more socially desirable. On the other hand, explicit measures rely on self-reporting, which can be influenced by social desirability bias, as individuals may provide responses that they believe are more socially acceptable or desirable. Therefore, implicit measures are considered to provide a more accurate reflection of individuals' true attitudes, as they are less influenced by conscious control or social desirability concerns.

The given answer is an example of discrimination because the professor is excluding certain students based on their identity or characteristics (in this case, their status as students) and denying them the same opportunities as others to sit at his table in the student union cafeteria. This action is unfair and discriminatory as it treats a specific group of students differently and denies them equal access and inclusion.

Child-rearing practices can either retard or accelerate infants' motor development because the environment and experiences provided by caregivers can have a significant impact on the development of motor skills in infants. Certain practices, such as providing ample opportunities for movement and physical activity, can accelerate motor development. On the other hand, neglecting to provide these opportunities or engaging in restrictive practices can retard motor development. Therefore, the statement accurately reflects the influence of nurture on infants' motor development.

A child who uses the word "wawa" to refer not only to water but to milk, juice, and other drinks is overextending the word. This means that the child is using a single word to represent a broader category of objects or concepts. In this case, the child is using "wawa" to refer to all types of drinks, not just water. This is a common linguistic phenomenon in early language development, where children generalize a word to include a wider range of objects or concepts than intended.

The hypothalamus is responsible for regulating many important bodily functions, including the control of the autonomic nervous system, body temperature, hunger, thirst, and hormone production. It acts as a central hub for coordinating and integrating signals from various parts of the brain and body. Therefore, it can be considered the hub of many central drive systems, as it plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and controlling basic physiological processes.

The diathesis in the diathesis-stress model is made up of a person's genetic make-up and early learning history. This means that a person's vulnerability to developing a disorder or experiencing stress is influenced by both their genetic factors and their early life experiences. These factors interact with environmental stressors to determine the likelihood of developing a disorder. The total amount of stress a person experiences and their early learning history alone do not make up the diathesis, as they are only part of the environmental stressors that interact with the diathesis.

Genetic differences play a significant role in accounting for personality variability among people, contributing approximately 40 to 55 percent of the variability in most personality traits. This conclusion is based on twin studies, which compare the similarities in personality traits between identical twins (who share 100% of their genes) and fraternal twins (who share 50% of their genes). The findings suggest that genetic factors have a substantial influence on personality, although environmental influences also play a role.

Fuel, paint or antifreeze is not necessarily considered a psychoactive substance because it does not have the ability to alter brain function or produce psychoactive effects. While it can be toxic and have harmful effects on the body, it does not directly affect the central nervous system or produce mind-altering effects like alcohol, cocaine, or caffeine.

The overjustification hypothesis suggests that when extrinsic rewards are increased, intrinsic motivation will be decreased. This means that if individuals are given external rewards for performing a task, such as money or praise, their internal motivation to engage in that task for its own sake will diminish. This is because the external rewards become the primary reason for performing the task, overshadowing any inherent enjoyment or interest in the activity itself. As a result, the individual's intrinsic motivation decreases.

The location in which a stem cell ends up determines the type of cell it will become. This is because the surrounding environment and signals from neighboring cells influence the differentiation process of stem cells. The specific conditions and factors in a particular location can trigger the activation of specific genes and pathways, leading to the development of different cell types. Therefore, the location plays a crucial role in determining the fate and specialization of stem cells.

Nonregulatory drives, such as sex and achievement, do not serve an immediate survival purpose or help maintain homeostasis. Instead, they are driven by psychological and social factors. Sex drive is a natural instinct that motivates individuals to engage in sexual activities for reproductive purposes or pleasure. Achievement drive, on the other hand, is the motivation to accomplish goals and succeed in various domains, such as career, education, or personal ambitions. These drives are not essential for physiological balance but play a significant role in human behavior and fulfillment.

This answer suggests that intelligence is primarily influenced by genes, followed by the unique environment that an individual experiences, and finally by the shared environment. This means that a person's genetic makeup plays a significant role in determining their intelligence, while their individual experiences and the environment they are exposed to also have some impact. The shared environment, which refers to factors that are common to individuals within a particular group or family, has the least influence on intelligence according to this answer.

According to the 3 prong test, a mental disorder must cause significant impairment, not be voluntary, and be due to an internal cause. This means that the disorder should have a significant impact on the individual's daily functioning or quality of life. It should not be something that the person chooses or has control over. Additionally, the cause of the disorder should be internal, meaning it originates from within the individual rather than being caused by external factors such as trauma or substance abuse.

The Premier's approach of withholding their own views and inviting outsiders to present their own views indicates a desire to discourage groupthink. Groupthink occurs when a group of people prioritize consensus and harmony over critical thinking and independent judgment. By challenging all arguments, the Premier is promoting a healthy exchange of ideas and encouraging individuals to think critically and independently, thereby discouraging the tendency towards groupthink.

Individuals with autism often have difficulties with theory of mind, which refers to the ability to understand and attribute mental states to oneself and others. This means that they may struggle with understanding and predicting the thoughts, beliefs, and intentions of others. This difficulty in theory of mind is one of the key characteristics of autism and can impact social interactions and communication skills.

According to Latane and Darley, one reason for bystander apathy in groups is that people are less likely to interpret an event as an emergency. This means that when individuals are in a group, they are less likely to perceive a situation as requiring urgent intervention or assistance. This can be due to diffusion of responsibility, where individuals assume that someone else will take action, or social influence, where individuals look to others for cues on how to behave. As a result, people may be less likely to offer help or take action in an emergency situation when they are in a group.

The humanistic perspective suggests that a person's behavior is driven by their motivation to reach their full potential. This perspective focuses on the individual's self-awareness, self-acceptance, and personal growth. It emphasizes the importance of personal choice and free will in shaping behavior, as well as the belief that individuals have an innate drive to become the best version of themselves. This perspective contrasts with other theories that focus on unconscious motivations or external influences on behavior.

Anne is using problem-focused coping as a strategy to deal with her stress. She recognizes that her main concern is not being able to complete the essay on time due to feeling sick. By asking her professor for an extension, she is directly addressing the problem at hand and seeking a solution that will allow her to meet the deadline despite her illness. This approach focuses on taking practical steps to manage the stressor and find a resolution.

Categorical perception refers to the phenomenon where our perception of different stimuli falls into distinct categories, even if the physical differences between the stimuli are minimal. This means that our perception does not accurately reflect the subtle variations in the physical properties of the stimuli. Therefore, the given answer is true as it accurately states that categorical perception demonstrates that our perception does not accurately reflect what is physically present in the sound.

The bridge study, where a confederate approached men on an elevated suspension bridge, supports the theory that we interpret our physiological arousal in the context of our environment (Schachter and Singer). This is because the men on the bridge misattributed their physiological arousal from fear to attraction towards the confederate due to the exciting environment. This suggests that our interpretation of physiological arousal is influenced by the situation we are in.

Noam Chomsky proposes that children have a language-acquisition device in their brain that allows them to understand the basic elements of grammar that are common to all languages, as well as acquire the specific rules of their own language. This innate mechanism helps children to learn and comprehend language more easily.

The answer suggests that both genetic predisposition and significant stress contribute to the development of a mental disorder. It states that these factors are additive, meaning that the more of one factor exists, the less of the other factor is required to develop a mental disorder. This implies that individuals with a high genetic predisposition may develop a mental disorder even with less exposure to significant stress, while those with low genetic predisposition may need a higher level of significant stress to develop a mental disorder.

Based on the information provided in the story, Brittany is aware that Amy thinks her doll is under the bed, but Brittany knows that it is actually in the kitchen cabinet. Therefore, Brittany will most likely predict that Amy will look under the bed because she does not know the true location of the doll.

Spearman inferred the existence of a general intelligence factor from the positive intercorrelations for tests of different intellectual skills. This means that individuals who perform well in one intellectual skill tend to perform well in other intellectual skills as well. This suggests the presence of a common underlying factor, known as the g factor, which influences performance across different intellectual domains.

The DSM-5 has been criticized for lumping together those with a mild form of a disorder with individuals with a more severe form, labeling an individual with a mental disorder can create stigma that in turn causes distress, and associating some disorders with one sex more than the other causing clinicians to look for what they expect to see. However, it has not been criticized for determining the classification of participants for clinical research purposes.

Anxiety is associated with worry about the future whereas depression is associated with despair about the future. Anxiety is more likely than depression to be accompanied by physiological arousal. Depression is more likely than anxiety to involve giving up. This means that the statement "Depression is more likely than anxiety to be accompanied by hypervigilance" is not accurate.

Group polarization refers to the tendency for a group's decision or opinion to become more extreme than the initial individual positions held by its members. In this scenario, each council member was tentatively considering building a new park, indicating a range of opinions. However, after the meeting, they expressed strong support for the new development, suggesting that their individual positions became more extreme and aligned with the group's consensus. This exemplifies group polarization, where the group's shared discussion and interaction intensified their initial attitudes.

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Distracting the friend with news of your wedding plans can help take her mind off the pain and reduce her anxiety. By shifting her focus to something positive and exciting, she may become less nervous about the blood draw. This technique is commonly used to divert attention from discomfort or anxiety-inducing situations.

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Lanessa's belief that all professors are mean, spiteful, and arrogant is an example of a stereotype. A stereotype is a generalized belief or assumption about a particular group of people. In this case, Lanessa is applying this belief to all professors based on her experiences with just three of them. It is important to note that stereotypes are often oversimplified and can lead to unfair judgments or discrimination. However, the given information does not indicate any discriminatory actions on Lanessa's part, so it is not an example of discrimination.

Subjects who reported experiencing psychological distress prior to exposure were more likely than other subjects to develop a cold, as measured by both symptoms and viral counts. This suggests that psychological distress can weaken the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to respiratory viruses. The fact that both symptoms and viral counts were used as measures of developing a cold strengthens the validity of this conclusion.

The five-factor model is generally preferred over Cattell's trait theory today because Cattell's theory is considered to be overly complex and to have redundant factors. Many trait theorists believe that Cattell's theory is unnecessarily complicated and that it includes factors that are essentially the same. In contrast, the five-factor model provides a simpler and more concise framework for understanding and explaining personality differences.

Attribution refers to the process of assigning causes to behaviors or events. When people engage in attribution, they consider two different types of causes: internal and external. Internal causes refer to factors within an individual, such as their personality traits or abilities, while external causes refer to factors outside of the individual, such as the situation or environment. This distinction allows individuals to make sense of why certain behaviors or events occur and helps them understand the underlying causes behind them.

Both Cale and Kyle believe that the taller glass contains more juice, indicating that they have not yet mastered the principle of conservation. The principle of conservation refers to the understanding that the quantity of a substance remains the same even if its appearance or arrangement changes. In this case, even though the glasses have different shapes, they still contain the same amount of juice. Cale and Kyle's inability to recognize this suggests that they have not yet developed the cognitive ability to understand conservation.

The rouge test is a method used to determine if an individual has a sense of self-recognition. It involves placing a mark of rouge on an individual's face and observing their reaction when they see themselves in a mirror. If they recognize the mark as being on their own face, it indicates a sense of self. The correct answer states that a sense of self, as demonstrated by the rouge test, is evident in humans and some other species. This suggests that not only human adults but also certain animals exhibit self-recognition, indicating that a sense of self is not exclusive to humans and develops at different stages in different species.

Vygotsky believed that the social world was most critical to intellectual development, whereas Piaget emphasized the physical world. Vygotsky believed that social interactions and cultural influences play a crucial role in shaping a child's cognitive development. He argued that learning and development occur through social interactions with more knowledgeable individuals. On the other hand, Piaget focused on the child's interaction with the physical environment and believed that cognitive development occurs through the child's active exploration and manipulation of objects.

It is important to assess symptoms before treatment begins in order to accurately diagnose the psychological disorder and determine the most appropriate treatment approach. Additionally, assessing symptoms after treatment has been administered helps to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment and make any necessary adjustments. Therefore, the most accurate statement regarding psychological treatment is that symptoms should be assessed before treatment begins and after treatment has been administered.

Individuals who are more sensitive to physiological changes in their body and interpret these as being dangerous are susceptible to panic disorder. Panic disorder is characterized by recurrent and unexpected panic attacks, which are intense periods of fear and discomfort. These individuals may misinterpret normal bodily sensations as signs of a life-threatening situation, leading to the development of panic attacks. This heightened sensitivity and misinterpretation of bodily sensations contribute to the vulnerability to panic disorder.

People generally overestimate the strength and duration of their emotional reactions when predicting the emotional outcome of a negative or positive event. This means that they tend to think that their emotional response will be stronger and last longer than it actually does. This can be attributed to various cognitive biases, such as the impact bias, where people overestimate the impact of future events on their emotions. Additionally, people may rely on stereotypes or previous experiences to make these predictions, leading to inaccurate estimations.

Bandura's finding was that children who observed a model being punished behaved less aggressively towards the Bobo doll themselves compared to those who saw a model receive no consequences. This suggests that the punishment served as a deterrent and influenced the children's behavior.

Emotions serve the purpose of reproduction and survival because they are essential for the continuation of the species. Emotions such as love, attraction, and bonding facilitate reproduction by promoting the formation of romantic relationships and the desire to mate. Emotions like fear and anger help individuals to recognize and respond to threats, increasing their chances of survival. By experiencing emotions, individuals are more likely to engage in behaviors that are beneficial for their own survival and the survival of their offspring, thus ensuring the continuation of the species.

The key properties of human language are semanticity, generativity, and displacement. Semanticity refers to the ability of language to convey meaning through words and symbols. Generativity refers to the infinite number of sentences that can be created using a finite set of rules and words. Displacement refers to the ability to talk about things that are not present in the immediate environment or time. These properties distinguish human language from other forms of communication and allow for complex and abstract communication.

The correct answer is biology. Critical periods for language development refer to specific time frames in a child's development when they are most receptive to acquiring language skills. These periods are influenced by biological factors such as brain development and neural plasticity. During these critical periods, children have a heightened ability to learn language and develop fluency. Factors such as the number and quality of older speakers, the deep structure of language, and the environment can also play a role, but the primary determinant is biology.

Erikson's description of stages in which crises have to be resolved cannot be tested or disproved because it is based on subjective observations and interpretations. Unlike a scientific theory, which can be tested through empirical research and evidence, Erikson's stages are more of a conceptual framework that provides a general understanding of human development. While it is widely accepted and used in the field of psychology, it lacks the empirical evidence required for it to be considered a scientific theory.

Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a theory of moral development that consists of three levels and six stages. According to his theory, moral development progresses from external control to internal control. In the early stages, individuals are motivated by external factors such as fear of punishment or desire for rewards. However, as they progress through the stages, they develop a sense of internal morality based on personal values and principles. This internal control guides their moral decision-making and behavior, leading to a higher level of moral development.

The correct answer is that the mother's licking changed the expression of the rat pups' genes. This is because the mother's grooming behavior can alter the epigenetic regulation of the pups' genes, leading to changes in gene expression. This can result in long-term effects on the pups' behavior and stress response, making them more relaxed as adults.

Jamaal's belief that no matter what he does or how much he practices he will never get his license indicates that he feels that external factors, such as luck or the actions of others, have control over the outcome of his situation. This aligns with Rotter's concept of external locus of control, which suggests that individuals believe that their lives are primarily controlled by external forces rather than their own actions or abilities.

Antipsychotic medications often work by decreasing the amount of dopamine available in the brain. This is because an excess of dopamine has been linked to symptoms of psychosis, such as hallucinations and delusions. By reducing the amount of dopamine, antipsychotic medications can help alleviate these symptoms and improve the overall functioning of individuals with psychotic disorders.

The best treatment for most disorders is one that reduces or removes the client's symptoms. This is because the primary goal of treatment is to alleviate the distress and impairment caused by the disorder. By targeting and addressing the symptoms, the client can experience relief and improvement in their overall functioning. While other factors such as client-therapist agreement, the use of medication and psychotherapy, and providing hope and support are important, they may not be as effective if the symptoms are not effectively managed.

According to the Theory of Planned Behaviour, our attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are determinants of our behavioral intentions. Behavioral intentions refer to an individual's plan or motivation to engage in a specific behavior. These intentions are influenced by one's attitudes towards the behavior, the social pressure or subjective norms surrounding the behavior, and the perceived control one has over performing the behavior. Therefore, the Theory of Planned Behaviour suggests that these factors can predict an individual's behavioral intentions.

Attachment orientations form in childhood and do not change. This statement is not true because research has shown that attachment styles can change over time. While attachment styles do tend to form in early childhood based on interactions with primary caregivers, they are not fixed and can be influenced by later experiences and relationships. It is possible for individuals to develop more secure attachment styles through therapy, self-reflection, and healthy relationships.

Behavioural therapy incorporates the manipulation of environmental variables to produce therapeutic change. This form of psychotherapy focuses on the idea that behavior is learned and can be unlearned or modified through conditioning techniques. It emphasizes the importance of identifying and changing maladaptive behaviors and replacing them with more adaptive ones. By manipulating the environment and utilizing techniques such as reinforcement, punishment, and exposure, behavioural therapy aims to bring about positive changes in an individual's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

Milgram's research on obedience found that making the authority figure more distant from the participant increased obedience. It also found that making the learner more immediate to the participant decreased obedience. Additionally, the presence of an obedient companion increased obedience of the participant. However, the statement that the presence of a disobedient companion increased obedience of the participant is not true.

Vygotsky believed that language is a cultural variable that plays a crucial role in a child's cognitive development. Language allows children to communicate with others, express their thoughts, and understand the world around them. Through language, children are able to internalize and use symbols, which is essential for higher-level thinking and problem-solving. Language also enables children to engage in social interactions and learn from more knowledgeable individuals, such as parents, teachers, and peers. Therefore, language is considered a fundamental cultural variable that shapes a child's cognitive development according to Vygotsky.

A person who displays little or no emotion, very little speech, and hardly any movement is most likely experiencing schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by a breakdown in thinking, emotions, and behavior. Symptoms of schizophrenia can include flat affect (little or no emotion), reduced speech, and decreased motor activity. Substance-induced disorder and depression can also cause similar symptoms, but given the specific symptoms mentioned, schizophrenia is the most likely explanation.

Factor analysis is a statistical analysis method that is used to determine the underlying dimensions or factors that explain the relationships among a set of variables or items. It helps researchers group together similar items and identify the common factors that contribute to the variance in the data. This technique is commonly used in personality research to understand the fundamental dimensions or traits that underlie a battery of personality items. By identifying these basic dimensions, researchers can gain insights into the structure of personality and how different variables contribute to its development.

During the prenatal phase, which refers to the period before birth, there is significant growth and development of both the nervous system and the body. This is a critical time when the foundation for the future development of the individual is established. The prenatal phase is characterized by rapid cell division, organ formation, and the growth of the brain and nervous system. Therefore, it is the phase of the life-span that is characterized by the most rapid growth in development of the nervous system and the body.

According to Albert Ellis' Rational Emotive Therapy (RET), psychological problems are believed to be caused by faulty cognitions. This means that individuals experience emotional distress and maladaptive behaviors due to irrational and negative thoughts or beliefs. Ellis argued that these faulty cognitions, such as irrational beliefs and unrealistic expectations, contribute to the development and maintenance of psychological issues. By identifying and challenging these irrational thoughts, individuals can work towards replacing them with more rational and constructive beliefs, leading to improved emotional well-being.

Compulsions serve to counteract the anxiety produced by obsessions. This means that individuals engage in repetitive behaviors or mental acts as a way to alleviate the distress caused by their obsessions. By performing these compulsions, individuals hope to reduce the anxiety and discomfort associated with their obsessive thoughts. This connection between obsessions and compulsions is a characteristic feature of anxiety disorders, as compulsions are used as a coping mechanism to manage the anxiety and distress caused by obsessive thoughts.

The given correlations suggest that the similarity in characteristic X between adopted siblings who are biologically unrelated is low (.11), indicating that heredity plays a minimal role in the variation of this characteristic. On the other hand, the higher correlations for fraternal twins (.56) and identical twins (.93) suggest that the environment contributes more to the variation in characteristic X for twins. Therefore, the explanation is that the environment contributes comparatively little to the variation in characteristic X.

A good theory is one that can be subjected to precise testing. This means that the theory can be carefully and accurately evaluated through experiments, observations, or other empirical methods. By allowing for precise testing, the theory can be rigorously examined and its predictions or hypotheses can be confirmed or refuted. This characteristic is important because it ensures that the theory is based on evidence and can be validated or modified based on the results of the testing.

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Individuals with higher cognitive abilities have lower levels of activation in areas of the brain used to perform a task. This suggests that they are able to efficiently use their brain resources and achieve the same level of performance with less neural activity. This efficiency may be a result of enhanced neural connectivity and more effective neural networks. It also indicates that these individuals are able to conserve energy (lower glucose metabolism) as problems become increasingly more complex, as they require less neural activity to solve such problems.

The correct answer is major depressive disorder; persistent depressive disorder. This is because major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder are both types of depressive disorders, characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest. The other pairs listed are related to bipolar disorder, which is a separate mood disorder characterized by periods of depression and mania/hypomania.

ECT and psychosurgery are no longer in wide use because less invasive measures are tried first. This means that before resorting to ECT or psychosurgery, other, less invasive treatments are attempted to address the mental health condition. This approach is preferred as it reduces the potential risks and side effects associated with ECT and psychosurgery. Additionally, it allows for a more patient-centered and individualized treatment plan, taking into consideration the preferences and needs of the individual.

Research has consistently shown that people tend to find faces that are average-looking more attractive. This is because average faces tend to have more symmetrical features, which are associated with good health and genetic fitness. Additionally, average faces are familiar and less likely to have extreme or unusual features, making them more appealing to a wider range of people.

After experiencing the initial shock and distress of his mother's death, Paulie has now regained enough composure and functionality to handle the practical tasks associated with her passing. This suggests that he is in the resistance stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome. In this stage, individuals begin to cope with the stressor and regain their ability to function effectively.

A valid IQ test should correlate strongly with other accepted measures of a person's intelligence. This means that the scores obtained from the IQ test should align closely with the scores obtained from other established intelligence tests. If there is a strong correlation between the scores, it indicates that the IQ test is measuring intelligence accurately and consistently. This criterion helps ensure that the IQ test is reliable and can be used as a valid measure of intelligence.

Accurate classification of mental disorders enables researchers to have a clearer understanding of the specific conditions they are studying. This allows them to conduct more focused and targeted research, leading to more fruitful findings and advancements in the field. With accurate classification, researchers can identify common patterns, risk factors, and effective treatment approaches, ultimately improving the overall understanding and management of mental disorders.

Conversion disorder is a diagnosis given to individuals who actually lose a bodily function as a result of their anxiety. This means that their anxiety manifests physically, causing real physical symptoms such as paralysis or blindness. On the other hand, factitious disorder is a diagnosis given to individuals who pretend to have lost a bodily function. In this case, the physical symptoms are intentionally feigned or exaggerated for secondary gain, such as attention or sympathy. Therefore, the correct answer is conversion disorder; factitious disorder.

Major depression may be caused by negative thoughts (cognitions) because negative thoughts can contribute to a persistent depressed mood. Cognitive theories of depression suggest that individuals with depression often have distorted and negative thinking patterns, such as pessimism, self-criticism, and rumination. These negative thoughts can perpetuate and intensify feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and worthlessness, leading to the development and maintenance of major depression. Therefore, negative thoughts and cognitions can play a significant role in the onset and severity of major depression.

Attribution refers to the process of inferring the causes of other people's behavior. It involves making judgments and attributing certain characteristics or motivations to explain why someone acted in a particular way. This process allows us to understand and make sense of others' behavior, and it plays a crucial role in our social interactions and relationships.

The correct answer is "on the decline." This means that substance use disorders in Canada are decreasing in prevalence. This could be due to various factors such as increased awareness and prevention efforts, improved access to treatment, and changes in societal attitudes towards substance use. It is important to continue monitoring and addressing substance use disorders to ensure that this decline continues.

The correct answer is impaired control, social impairment, risky use, and pharmacological issues. Substance use disorders are diagnosed when these four categories are met. Impaired control refers to the inability to control or stop using the substance despite negative consequences. Social impairment refers to the negative impact on relationships, work, or school due to substance use. Risky use refers to using the substance in dangerous situations. Pharmacological issues refer to the development of tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, cravings, and difficulty in cutting down substance use despite efforts to do so. These four categories together help diagnose substance use disorders.

Reflexes are involuntary movements or actions that occur in response to a stimulus. They are present at birth as a natural part of the baby's development. However, as the baby grows and develops more control over their muscles and nervous system, these reflexes often disappear. This is because the baby's brain and body are maturing, allowing them to consciously control their movements and respond to stimuli in a more deliberate manner. Therefore, it is common for reflexes to be present at birth and then gradually disappear as the baby develops.

The behavior described in the question, where the 3-year-old believes that closing her eyes and turning her back on you makes her invisible, is an example of egocentrism. Egocentrism is a characteristic of the preoperational stage of development in children, where they struggle to understand that others have different perspectives and beliefs than their own. This stage is typically observed in children between the ages of 2 and 7. Conservation, hypothetical thinking, and object permanence are not relevant to the behavior described.

The "that's-not-all" technique and the "door-in-the-face" technique are both believed to work because of the principle of reciprocity. The "that's-not-all" technique involves offering a product or service at a certain price and then sweetening the deal by adding additional benefits or discounts. This creates a sense of obligation in the recipient to reciprocate the favor by making a purchase. Similarly, the "door-in-the-face" technique involves making a large initial request that is likely to be rejected, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request. The recipient is more likely to comply with the smaller request as a form of reciprocity for the concession made by the persuader.

The statement that is NOT true of Lazarus and Folkman's theory of cognitive appraisal is "If the resources are not adequate to help with coping, the person enters the third stage of cognitive appraisal, denial." In their theory, the third stage of cognitive appraisal is actually called "reappraisal" and it involves evaluating the available coping options and choosing the most appropriate one. Denial is not considered as a stage of cognitive appraisal in their theory.

Reciprocal determinism is the idea that behavior, environment, and person variables all interact and influence each other to shape an individual's personality. This means that a person's behavior can be influenced by their environment and personal characteristics, but at the same time, their behavior can also influence their environment and personal characteristics. It suggests that personality is not solely determined by internal factors or external factors, but rather by the dynamic interaction between the two.

The answer "Children sharing an environment are more likely to be different than similar" is the most accurate because it aligns with the concept of individual differences and the influence of genetic and environmental factors on personality development. While siblings may share similar genetic backgrounds and grow up in the same family environment, they can still have distinct personalities due to various factors such as unique experiences, different peer groups, and individual genetic variations. This answer acknowledges the complexity of personality development and the potential for diversity within a shared environment.

Janice's assumption is incorrect. The heritability of a trait within a group does not provide any information about the observed differences in that trait between groups. The heritability estimates can vary depending on the method used, and therefore cannot be generalized to between-group differences.

Seeking private feedback from those around them is not an effective way in which people manage their self-esteem. Self-esteem is influenced by external factors such as comparing oneself to others who are worse off and associating with successful individuals. Engaging in behavior designed to sabotage one's own performance may be a maladaptive coping mechanism, but it still serves as a way to manage self-esteem. Seeking private feedback may not provide accurate or helpful information for self-esteem management.

Language being infinitely generative means that it has the capability to create and communicate new ideas. It is not limited to existing concepts or experiences, but can be used to express and explore novel concepts and thoughts. This aspect of language allows for the continuous development and evolution of human knowledge and understanding.

Therapists today often use an eclectic approach to psychological treatment, which means they draw from various therapeutic techniques and theories to tailor treatment to the individual's specific needs. This approach allows therapists to combine different strategies and interventions from different theoretical orientations, such as cognitive-behavioral, psychodynamic, and humanistic approaches, to create a more comprehensive and personalized treatment plan for their clients. By utilizing an eclectic approach, therapists can integrate the most effective elements from different theories and adapt their approach to the unique circumstances and goals of each client.