Sociology Practice Quiz #2

Macrosociology focuses its analyses on larger social dynamics at the societal and structural levels. This means that it examines social phenomena and patterns on a broader scale, such as institutions, social classes, and social movements. It looks at how these factors shape and influence society as a whole, rather than focusing on individual interactions or small groups. This approach allows for a better understanding of the larger social structures and systems that impact individuals and communities.

Reverse causality is the correct answer because it refers to the mistake of mistakenly thinking that A is causing B, when in fact, B is causing A. In this scenario, Martine, the sociologist, is making this mistake by incorrectly attributing the cause and effect relationship. It is important for her to be careful and avoid this error in her research and analysis.

Conflict theory is the correct answer because it aligns with the statement that competition, rather than consensus, is the main driver of social change. Conflict theory emphasizes the role of power struggles and social inequalities in shaping society. It posits that social change occurs through conflicts between different groups competing for resources and power. This perspective is in contrast to functionalism, which focuses on the stability and harmony of social systems. Feminism, postmodernism, and midrange theory do not specifically address the role of competition in social change, making them incorrect answers.

Symbolic interactionism is a modern sociological theory that focuses on understanding social behavior by examining the meanings that social signals and signs represent to individuals. It emphasizes the importance of symbols, language, and communication in shaping social interactions and the construction of reality. This theory suggests that individuals interpret and give meaning to their social environment, and these interpretations influence their behavior and interactions with others. Symbolic interactionism also emphasizes the role of social interaction and the exchange of symbols in the construction of identity and the formation of social relationships.

Cultural anthropology is the most similar to sociology because both disciplines study human societies, cultures, and social behavior. They both examine how individuals and groups interact, form social structures, and create meaning through shared beliefs, values, and norms. Cultural anthropology focuses on the study of different cultures and their practices, while sociology looks at social institutions, social inequality, and social change. Both disciplines use similar research methods, such as participant observation and interviews, to understand human behavior and social phenomena.

The statement "people with higher levels of income tend to enjoy better overall health" is an example of a correlational association in social research. This means that there is a relationship between income and health, where higher income is associated with better health outcomes. However, it does not imply causation, meaning that higher income does not necessarily cause better health. Other factors could be influencing both income and health, such as access to healthcare or lifestyle choices.

Interpretive sociologists focus on understanding the meanings and interpretations individuals attach to their behaviors. As a result, they commonly use qualitative measures to gather rich and in-depth data. Qualitative measures involve collecting non-numerical data through methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of texts or documents. These methods allow researchers to explore the subjective experiences, perspectives, and social contexts that shape individuals' behaviors. In contrast, quantitative measures involve numerical data and statistical analysis, which may not capture the nuanced meanings and interpretations that interpretive sociologists aim to uncover.

Reliability refers to the consistency or stability of a measure or test. In the context of research, it indicates the likelihood of obtaining the same results when testing a hypothesis using the same measures in the future. A high level of reliability suggests that the research findings are dependable and can be replicated. Therefore, the answer "reliability" is the most appropriate choice in relation to the likelihood of obtaining consistent results in subsequent tests.

Mitchell Duneier's study of homeless men on New York City's Sixth Avenue involved hanging out with his research subjects to collect data. This type of methodology is known as participant observation. In participant observation, the researcher immerses themselves in the social setting being studied, actively participating and observing the behavior and interactions of the participants. This method allows for a deep understanding of the social context and the perspectives of the individuals being studied. It is often used in qualitative research to gain rich and detailed insights into a specific group or community.

A false relationship or alternative explanation in social research is known as a spurious relationship. This means that although there may appear to be a connection or correlation between two variables, it is not actually a causal relationship. The observed relationship is misleading and can be attributed to other factors or variables that are not being considered. Therefore, the correct answer is spurious.

A case study is an in-depth look at a specific phenomenon or situation in a particular social setting. It is commonly used in qualitative research to provide detailed information and insights into a specific topic or issue. Case studies involve collecting and analyzing data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, to gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject. This research method allows researchers to examine complex social phenomena in their natural context and explore the various factors and dynamics that influence them.

The correct answer is the evolution of feminist methodology to complement it and add to the scientific accumulation of knowledge. This suggests that despite the long-term male dominance in sociology, there has been a positive outcome in the form of the development of feminist methodology. This methodology helps to enhance and expand the scientific knowledge in the field by incorporating feminist perspectives and addressing gender inequalities.

Erving Goffman's concept of dramaturgical theory refers to the idea that individuals in social interactions are like actors on a stage, presenting themselves in a certain way to create specific impressions on others. This theory emphasizes the importance of impression management, where individuals strategically shape their behavior, appearance, and communication to project a desired image to others. Goffman's analogy to theater helps to illustrate the performative nature of social interactions and highlights how individuals actively construct their social identities.

Postmodern sociologists believe that objective phenomena, such as facts, are not inherently true or fixed, but rather are shaped by social and cultural contexts. They argue that meaning is subjective and constructed by individuals and societies. Therefore, to postmodernists, all "facts" are seen as social constructs, created and influenced by various social factors and perspectives. This perspective challenges the notion of absolute truth and emphasizes the importance of understanding the social and cultural influences on knowledge and reality.

Qualitative research is the category of research methods that uses documentation of the meanings that engender social participants to describe the mechanisms by which social processes occur. This type of research focuses on understanding the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals, rather than quantifying data. It involves methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of documents and texts. Qualitative research aims to provide rich and detailed insights into social phenomena, allowing researchers to explore complex social processes and understand the meanings that individuals attribute to them.

Validity refers to the extent to which a researcher is successful in measuring what they intend to measure. In other words, it measures the accuracy and truthfulness of the research findings. A study is considered valid when it measures the variables it claims to measure and provides reliable and unbiased results. Validity is crucial in ensuring that the research findings are meaningful and can be generalized to the larger population.

Quantitative research is the correct answer because it involves using statistical analyses to describe the social world. This research method focuses on collecting numerical data and analyzing it using statistical techniques to identify patterns, trends, and relationships. It aims to provide objective and measurable information about a specific phenomenon or population. By using quantitative research, researchers can draw conclusions and make generalizations about a larger population based on the data collected from a smaller sample size.

Generalizability refers to the extent to which the findings of a study can be applied or generalized to a larger population beyond the participants who were actually studied. It is a measure of how representative the sample studied is of the larger population and how accurately the findings can be extrapolated to other similar groups. In other words, generalizability assesses the external validity of the study and determines the extent to which the results can be applied to real-world situations and populations.

Feminism is the correct answer because it is a modern sociological theory that focuses on examining power relationships based on gender differences. Feminism seeks to understand and challenge the social, political, and economic inequalities between men and women, and how these inequalities are maintained and reproduced in society. It analyzes how gender norms and expectations shape power dynamics, and advocates for gender equality and the empowerment of women.

Causality refers to the concept in social science where a change in one factor directly results in a change in another factor. It implies a cause-and-effect relationship between variables, suggesting that one variable is responsible for the change in another. This concept helps researchers understand and explain the relationships between different factors and their impact on each other.

A hypothesis is a proposed relationship between two variables that a sociologist studies. It is a statement that suggests a possible explanation or prediction for a social phenomenon. Sociologists use hypotheses to guide their research and to test the validity of their theories. Hypotheses are based on observations and previous research, and they help researchers to formulate specific research questions and design appropriate research methods.

Experimenter effects, such as reflexivity, refer to the influence that the experimenter's presence or behavior can have on the participants or the outcome of the study. This can include factors like the experimenter's appearance or demeanor. The term "white coat effects" is used to describe this phenomenon, likely because traditionally, scientists and researchers wear white lab coats while conducting experiments.

The correct answer is that having women and girls, as well as men and boys, as research subjects increases generalizability. This means that including both genders in research allows for more accurate and applicable findings that can be generalized to the larger population. By including women and girls, who have historically been underrepresented in research, feminist methodology aims to address gender biases and inequalities in research and ensure a more inclusive and comprehensive understanding of human experiences.

Symbolic interactionists study shared meaning. This perspective focuses on how individuals interact and communicate with each other, emphasizing the importance of symbols and language in shaping social interactions and constructing shared meanings. Symbolic interactionists examine how individuals interpret and give meaning to symbols, gestures, and other forms of communication in their everyday interactions, and how these meanings influence their behavior and social relationships. They are interested in understanding how individuals negotiate and create shared meanings through their interactions, and how these meanings shape their perception of the social world.

The inductive approach to sociological research involves starting with empirical observations and then forming a theory based on those observations. This approach emphasizes the importance of gathering data and evidence before developing a theory or hypothesis. It allows researchers to draw conclusions and make generalizations based on specific observations, helping to build a theoretical framework from the ground up. The inductive approach is often used in qualitative research methods, such as ethnography or grounded theory, where researchers aim to understand social phenomena through detailed observations and analysis.

The correct answer is sample. In this scenario, Charles is studying a specific population of gay fathers in the United States. He interviews 200 men, which represents a subset or sample of this population. A sample is a smaller group that is selected from a larger population to gather data and make inferences about the entire population. Therefore, the 200 men Charles interviews form a sample for his research on gay fathers.

Microsociology focuses its analyses on face-to-face encounters and interactions. It examines the small-scale interactions between individuals or small groups, and how these interactions shape social behavior and relationships. It looks at the micro-level of social life, such as the dynamics of conversations, gestures, and expressions, to understand how individuals construct meaning and interpret social situations. Microsociology is interested in understanding how individuals influence and are influenced by the social contexts in which they interact, and how these interactions contribute to larger social patterns and structures.

Independent variables are the factors that are believed to have a causal impact on another variable. These variables are manipulated or controlled by the researcher in order to observe their effect on the dependent variable. In a sociological study, the sociologist would identify and measure the independent variables that they believe influence the outcome or behavior being studied.

For each hypothesis, there is a null and alternative hypothesis. This means that when conducting a hypothesis test, there are always two competing hypotheses: the null hypothesis, which assumes no effect or relationship, and the alternative hypothesis, which suggests the presence of an effect or relationship. These two hypotheses are mutually exclusive and exhaustive, and they allow researchers to make a decision about the validity of the null hypothesis based on the evidence from the data.

The interview method of research allows researchers to probe, which means to push research subjects a bit deeper in their responses to the questions. This enables researchers to gather more detailed and in-depth information from the participants, leading to a richer understanding of the topic being studied. Probing helps to uncover hidden perspectives, motivations, and insights that may not have been revealed through surface-level questioning alone. By probing, researchers can delve into the thoughts, feelings, and experiences of the participants, enhancing the validity and depth of the research findings.

A case study is the correct research method in this scenario because the sociologist is focusing on one specific high school to understand the effectiveness of its Parent-Teacher Association. A case study involves an in-depth examination of a single subject or a small group, allowing for detailed analysis and understanding of specific situations or phenomena. In this case, the sociologist will gather data, conduct interviews, and observe the interactions within the high school to gain insights into the workings and impact of the Parent-Teacher Association.

Every sociologist makes some value judgments, even about the problems and topics he or she chooses to study. This means that sociologists cannot completely detach themselves from their own values and beliefs when conducting research. These value judgments can influence the research process, the interpretation of data, and the conclusions drawn. It is important to acknowledge and be aware of these value judgments to ensure transparency and objectivity in sociological research.

The correct answer is "the nomethetic approach". The passage states that historians focus on explaining unique cases, while sociologists use the comparative method. The term "nomethetic" refers to the comparative approach used by sociologists to study patterns and generalizations across different cases or groups. Therefore, "the nomethetic approach" is the most suitable answer based on the information provided.

A sample refers to a subset of a population from which a researcher collects data. It is a representative portion of the larger population that is chosen to study and draw conclusions about the entire population. By collecting data from a sample, researchers can make inferences and generalizations about the population as a whole. This is a common practice in research, as it is often impractical or impossible to study an entire population due to time, cost, or logistical constraints.

Reflexivity refers to the researcher's awareness of their own influence on the events they are studying. It involves recognizing and acknowledging their own biases, assumptions, and values that may impact the research process and findings. By being reflexive, researchers can critically reflect on their role and perspective, which enhances the credibility and objectivity of their research.

Positivist sociologists tend to use quantitative measures because they focus on objective and measurable data. Quantitative measures involve the use of numerical data and statistical analysis to study social phenomena. This approach allows for the collection of large amounts of data and the identification of patterns and trends. It also enables researchers to test hypotheses and make generalizations about the social world. In contrast, qualitative measures involve the use of subjective and descriptive data, such as interviews, observations, and narratives, which may not be as suitable for the positivist approach.

Panel study results are not a factor needed to establish causality. Factors needed to establish causality include correlation, time order, and ruling out alternative explanations. Panel study results may provide valuable data and evidence, but they are not a necessary factor in determining causality.

The case study method is not useful for creating large-scale generalizations. Case studies typically focus on a specific individual, group, or event, providing in-depth and detailed information. However, this narrow focus limits the ability to draw broad conclusions or generalize findings to a larger population. Instead, case studies are valuable for exploring new topics, obtaining detailed information, and understanding causal mechanisms indicated in large-scale surveys.

The United Nations' definition of poverty is a person living on less than $1 per day. This indicates that the UN considers individuals who have access to only $1 or less for their daily needs as living in poverty. This definition helps to measure and identify the extent of poverty globally and guide efforts to alleviate it.

Cohabitating couples are less likely to have qualms about divorcing because living together before marriage often leads to a more casual and less committed attitude towards relationships. When couples cohabitate, they may view marriage as less sacred and may be more willing to end the relationship if problems arise. This lack of hesitation or concern about divorce increases the likelihood of divorce compared to couples who do not cohabitate.

The correct answer is "great man" theories. This refers to the approach in history that emphasizes the impact and influence of individual leaders and influential figures, such as Adolf Hitler, on historical events and developments. It suggests that these individuals have the power to shape and change history through their actions and decisions. This approach is often contrasted with other perspectives, such as people's histories, which focus on the experiences and perspectives of ordinary people, and historical materialism, which examines the influence of socioeconomic factors on historical events.

Moderating variables are variables that influence the strength or direction of the relationship between an independent and dependent variable. They can either enhance or diminish the relationship. These variables are not directly related to the independent and dependent variables, but they have an impact on the relationship between them.

The largest division within the discipline of sociology exists between interpretive and positivist sociology. Interpretive sociology focuses on understanding the meanings and interpretations individuals give to their social actions, while positivist sociology emphasizes the use of scientific methods to study social phenomena and aims to uncover general laws and patterns in society. These two approaches differ in their ontological and epistemological assumptions, research methods, and goals, leading to distinct perspectives on the nature of society and how it should be studied.

Kate is using the deductive method. Deductive reasoning involves starting with a theory or general statement and then making specific predictions or hypotheses based on that theory. These hypotheses are then tested through empirical observations and data collection. In this case, Kate begins with a theory, forms a hypothesis, and then gathers empirical observations to test that hypothesis, which aligns with the deductive method.

Ann Oakley is the correct answer because she is a feminist sociologist who wrote the book "Sex, Gender, and Society" in 1972. In this book, Oakley argues that many of the differences we attribute to biological sex are actually a result of learned behaviors and socialization. Her work challenges the idea that gender differences are solely determined by biology and highlights the importance of social factors in shaping gender roles and expectations.

The examination of human behavior within a rational actor model is the focus of economics. Economics studies how individuals and societies make choices and allocate resources based on rational decision-making. It analyzes human behavior in terms of incentives, costs, and benefits, and seeks to understand how individuals maximize their utility and welfare.

When conducting hypothesis testing, it is crucial for a researcher to clearly define the concepts and variables involved in the study. This process is known as operationalization. Operationalization involves precisely specifying how the variables will be measured or manipulated in order to test the hypothesis effectively. By operationalizing the concepts and variables, researchers can ensure that their study is reliable, valid, and replicable.

Deconstructing refers to the approach taken by postmodern sociologists who aim to demonstrate that all social phenomena are constructed arbitrarily by individuals who possess different levels of power. This perspective challenges the notion of objective truth and emphasizes the role of power dynamics in shaping social structures and institutions. It seeks to dismantle and analyze the underlying assumptions and biases that influence social phenomena, highlighting the subjective nature of social reality.

Research has consistently shown that couples who cohabitate before marriage have a higher likelihood of divorcing compared to those who do not. The given answer of 80% indicates that couples who live together prior to marriage are 80% more likely to get divorced. This suggests that cohabitation may not always be a strong indicator of a successful and lasting marriage, as it may lead to challenges and conflicts that can ultimately result in divorce.

Secondary hypotheses are not known as null hypotheses because null hypotheses are the initial hypotheses that are tested and either accepted or rejected. Alternative hypotheses are also not secondary hypotheses because they are the competing hypotheses to the null hypotheses. Corollary hypotheses are not secondary hypotheses either because corollary hypotheses are additional hypotheses that are derived from the main hypothesis. The only option left is rejected hypotheses, which refers to the hypotheses that have been disproven or rejected based on the evidence or data.