Psychology Study Guide Questions

In this scenario, the yellow smiley faces given by Sue's first-grade teacher serve as positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement involves the presentation of a pleasant stimulus (in this case, the smiley faces) to increase the likelihood of a behavior (good work) being repeated. The teacher hopes that by giving smiley faces for good work, the children will be encouraged to continue doing their best.

Ivan Pavlov is best known for his experiments with salivating dogs. He conducted a series of experiments where he conditioned dogs to associate the sound of a bell with the presentation of food. Over time, the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell alone, even without the presence of food. This discovery of classical conditioning revolutionized the field of psychology and laid the foundation for further research on learning and behavior.

B.F. Skinner used a "conditioning chamber" in his research with rats. This suggests that his experiments and studies were focused on understanding the behavior and learning processes of rats specifically. The conditioning chamber, also known as the Skinner box, was a controlled environment where Skinner could manipulate certain stimuli and rewards to observe how rats responded and learned through operant conditioning. By using rats in his research, Skinner aimed to gain insights into the principles of behavior and develop theories applicable to human behavior as well.

Double-blind observation is a research technique that helps reduce bias due to prior expectations. In a double-blind observation, both the researcher and the participants are unaware of the treatment or condition being administered. This eliminates the possibility of the researcher's expectations influencing the results or the participants' behavior. By keeping both parties blind to the experimental conditions, the likelihood of bias is minimized, resulting in more objective and reliable findings.

Psychologists must adhere to several major ethical principles when conducting research. Informed consent is one such principle, which involves obtaining voluntary and informed agreement from participants before they take part in the study. Debriefing is another important principle, where researchers provide participants with a comprehensive explanation of the study's purpose, procedures, and any potential deception used. Lastly, risk-benefit analysis is crucial, as researchers must carefully assess the potential risks and benefits associated with the study to ensure that the benefits outweigh any potential harm to participants. Therefore, all of these principles are essential for researchers to follow to maintain ethical standards in their research.

Behaviorists insisted that psychology should focus entirely on the study of behavior-what people do-rather than what people experience. They believed that behavior could be objectively observed and measured, unlike subjective experiences such as thoughts and emotions. Behaviorists emphasized the importance of studying observable behaviors and the environmental factors that influence them, and they rejected the use of introspection and subjective methods in psychology. They believed that by studying behavior, they could understand and predict human actions and reactions.

Humanistic psychology is the correct answer because it is the branch of psychology that focuses on the positive aspects of human beings, such as their capacity for personal growth, self-actualization, and the pursuit of happiness. It emphasizes the importance of individual experiences, personal values, and the potential for self-improvement. Humanistic psychologists believe in the inherent goodness of people and aim to understand and enhance their subjective experiences and well-being. This approach contrasts with other branches of psychology, such as cognitive psychology, which focus more on cognitive processes and behavior, or Gestalt psychology, which focuses on perception and the organization of sensory information. Idealistic psychology is not a recognized branch of psychology.

The perspective that newborn babies turn away from noxious odors because it increases their chance of survival aligns with the evolutionary approach in psychology. This perspective focuses on how behaviors and traits have evolved over time to enhance an organism's chances of survival and reproduction. In this case, the behavior of turning away from noxious odors can be seen as an adaptive response that helps newborn babies avoid potential dangers in their environment.

The perspective illustrated in this scenario is the evolutionary perspective. This is because Dr. Coblentz's belief that women prefer young, physically healthy men for their life partners is based on the idea that this choice increases the chances of producing healthy offspring. This aligns with the principles of evolutionary theory, which suggests that individuals are more likely to select mates who possess traits that increase the likelihood of successful reproduction and the survival of their offspring.

Validity refers to the extent to which a measurement tool accurately measures what it claims to measure. In the context of the given question, validity is important because scientists need to be confident that the measurement process they are using is actually measuring the variable of interest accurately. Without validity, the measurements obtained may not be reliable or meaningful, leading to inaccurate conclusions and unreliable scientific findings. Therefore, validity is a crucial criterion for a measurement process to be considered ideal.

When an independent variable is manipulated, it is necessary to have a control group to compare the results with the experimental group. The control group serves as a baseline and does not receive the manipulation or treatment that the experimental group does. By comparing the results of the experimental group with the control group, researchers can determine the effects of the independent variable and evaluate its impact. Therefore, the correct answer is control group.

Dr. Dixon's research focuses on understanding why adolescents conform to the behaviors and opinions of their peers. This suggests that her research is best represented by social psychology. Social psychology examines how individuals are influenced by social factors, such as social norms, group dynamics, and interpersonal relationships. In this case, Dr. Dixon is specifically studying the social influence on adolescent behavior and opinions, which aligns with the core principles of social psychology.

A hypothesis is what gets tested directly when a scientific study is conducted. A hypothesis is a proposed explanation or prediction based on observations and prior knowledge. It is a testable statement that can be supported or refuted through experimentation or data analysis. In a scientific study, researchers design experiments or gather data to test the validity of their hypothesis. The results of the study will either support or reject the hypothesis, leading to further investigation or the formulation of a new hypothesis.

The sound of the truck engine serves as a stimulus for 2-year old Mark, causing him to go to sleep. A stimulus is any object or event that elicits a response or reaction from an organism. In this case, the sound of the truck engine is the stimulus that triggers the response of Mark falling asleep.

Randomization is the process of assigning research participants to either the experimental group or the control group in a study. It ensures that each participant has an equal chance of ending up in either group, eliminating any bias or preconceived notions. This helps to control for confounding variables and increases the internal validity of the study. Randomization is commonly used in experimental research to ensure that the groups are comparable and any differences observed between them can be attributed to the treatment or intervention being studied.

The dependent variable is the outcome that is measured in an experiment. It is the variable that is expected to change as a result of manipulating the independent variable. In other words, it is the variable that is dependent on the independent variable. The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher, while the control variable is a variable that is kept constant in order to minimize its influence on the dependent variable.

Dr. Horton violated the ethical principle of freedom from coercion. By threatening his students with a failing grade if they didn't participate in his research, he exerted undue pressure and coercion on them. This violates the principle that individuals should have the freedom to make their own decisions without being forced or manipulated into participating in research.

Wilhelm Wundt is generally credited as the official emergence of psychology as a science because he established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879. Wundt's laboratory focused on studying the conscious experience through introspection and experimental methods, which laid the foundation for the scientific study of psychology. His work and teachings significantly influenced the development of psychology as a separate scientific discipline.

The American Psychological Association was formed in 1892 on the campus of Clark University. This indicates that the organization has a long history and was established during the late 19th century. The mention of Clark University suggests that it played a significant role in the formation of the association.

The correct answer is increased use of introspection techniques. The other options all contributed to the rise of cognitive neuroscience. The development of noninvasive brain-scanning techniques allowed researchers to study the brain's activity without invasive procedures. The advent of PET scans enabled the visualization of brain function by measuring blood flow and metabolism. The use of MRI scanners provided detailed images of the brain's structure and activity. However, increased use of introspection techniques, which rely on individuals' subjective reports of their own thoughts and experiences, is not a major factor in the rise of cognitive neuroscience.

In this scenario, the person is graphing the scores from lowest to highest and recording how many people had each shirt size. This process is known as constructing a frequency distribution. A frequency distribution displays the number of occurrences or frequencies of each category or value in a dataset. It helps to summarize and organize the data, providing a clear understanding of the distribution of shirt sizes among the students.

The independent variable in this study is whether students were punished or not. This is because it is the variable that is being manipulated by the researchers to observe its effect on the students' scores in their psychology course. The other options mentioned are either dependent variables (students' scores on the next psychology midterm, students' scores on the next midterm minus the baseline score) or baseline variables (students' previous scores on psychology midterms).

Informed consent is the ethical principle that ensures research participants are provided with sufficient information about a study, allowing them to make an informed decision on whether or not to participate. This principle emphasizes the importance of transparency and respect for the autonomy of individuals, ensuring they have the necessary knowledge to understand the purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits of the research. By obtaining informed consent, researchers uphold the ethical responsibility of respecting participants' rights and protecting their well-being.

The correct answer is cognitive psychology. This is because Wilhelm Wundt is known as the founder of structuralism, which focused on studying the basic elements of consciousness. Similarly, Jean Piaget is known for his work in cognitive psychology, which focuses on the study of mental processes such as perception, thinking, and problem-solving. Both Wundt and Piaget contributed significantly to their respective fields, emphasizing the importance of understanding the mind and its processes.

The advent of computers in the 1950s had an enormous conceptual impact on the development of cognitive psychology. Computers allowed researchers to simulate cognitive processes and test theories in a way that was not previously possible. They provided a tool for modeling and understanding complex mental processes, such as memory, attention, and problem-solving. This technological advancement revolutionized the field of cognitive psychology and greatly advanced our understanding of the human mind.

The correct answer is "a pattern of covariation between two variables." Correlation refers to the relationship between two variables, where they tend to change together in a consistent manner. It does not provide an explanation for cause-and-effect relationships, but rather shows the strength and direction of the association between the variables. Correlation is not the sum of observations made on a sample of participants, but rather a statistical measure that quantifies the extent to which two variables are related.

William James is associated with functionalism, a psychological approach that focuses on the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior. Wilhelm Wundt, on the other hand, is associated with structuralism, which focuses on the structure and elements of the mind through introspection. Therefore, the correct answer is functionalism; structuralism.

The question asks for a cognitive psychologist who is not included in the given options. William James is not a cognitive psychologist, as he was a philosopher and psychologist who focused more on functionalism and pragmatism rather than cognitive psychology.

Experimentation involves manipulating variables in order to observe the effect on other variables. This is done in order to determine cause and effect relationships. Observation, on the other hand, involves simply observing and measuring variables without any manipulation. This allows researchers to gather data and make correlations between variables. Therefore, manipulation of variables is related to experimentation, while measurement of variables is related to observation.

Dogmatism involves relying on assumptions and beliefs about the world, whereas empiricism involves making direct observations of the world. This means that dogmatism is based on preconceived notions and opinions, while empiricism relies on evidence and data obtained through observation and experimentation. Dogmatism can be seen as a more closed-minded approach, as it does not allow for the possibility of new information or perspectives, while empiricism is more open to change and revision based on new evidence.

The independent variable is the variable that is deliberately manipulated or changed by the researcher in an experiment. It is the factor that is believed to have an effect on the dependent variable. The dependent variable, on the other hand, is the variable that is being measured or observed and is expected to change in response to the manipulation of the independent variable. In this case, the correct answer is the independent variable, as it is the variable that gets manipulated in an experiment.

The early roots of psychology are firmly planted in philosophy and physiology. This is because psychology emerged as a separate discipline from philosophy, with philosophers such as René Descartes and John Locke laying the groundwork for understanding the mind and human behavior. However, it was the advancements in physiology, particularly in the study of the nervous system and the brain, that provided a scientific basis for understanding the physiological processes underlying psychological phenomena. Thus, physiology played a crucial role in shaping the early development of psychology as a scientific discipline.

Aristotle is known for his philosophical empiricism, which emphasizes the importance of observation and experience in acquiring knowledge. Similarly, Plato is associated with nativism, a philosophical view that suggests certain ideas and knowledge are innate and present at birth. This aligns with Plato's belief in the existence of a realm of Forms, where perfect and unchanging ideas exist independently of our sensory experiences. Nativism suggests that these innate ideas shape our understanding of the world and influence our learning and development.

Functionalism was a school of psychology that focused on the adaptive significance of mental processes. It emphasized the purpose and function of mental processes in helping individuals adapt to their environment. Functionalists believed that mental processes such as perception, memory, and consciousness served a purpose in helping individuals survive and thrive. This perspective contrasted with structuralism, which focused on the structure and elements of consciousness, and behaviorism, which emphasized observable behavior rather than mental processes. Empiricism, on the other hand, is a philosophical perspective that emphasizes the importance of sensory experience and observation in acquiring knowledge, but it is not specifically concerned with the adaptive importance of mental processes.

The law of larger numbers states that as the sample size increases, the sample mean will approach the population mean. Therefore, taking larger samples from a population allows researchers to obtain more accurate and reliable results when studying a question of interest. By increasing the sample size, researchers can reduce the impact of random variation and increase the likelihood of obtaining a representative sample that reflects the characteristics of the population being studied.

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Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of measurements obtained from a measuring device. A reliable measuring device will produce the same results each time it is used under similar conditions. This means that the device can be trusted to provide accurate and consistent measurements, making it a reliable tool for gathering data. Accuracy, on the other hand, refers to how close the measurements are to the true value, while validity refers to the extent to which a measuring device actually measures what it is intended to measure. Infallibility means being incapable of making mistakes, which is not a realistic expectation for any measuring device. Therefore, the correct answer is reliability.

Debriefing is the correct answer because it refers to the ethical principle that participants must be informed about the true purpose and nature of an experiment after it is over. During the debriefing process, participants are provided with information about the study, including any deception that may have been involved, and have the opportunity to ask questions or express any concerns they may have. This allows participants to fully understand their involvement in the study and ensures transparency and respect for their autonomy.

An operational definition is a description of a property in measurable terms. It provides clear and specific criteria for measuring or observing a particular concept or phenomenon. This allows researchers to objectively assess and quantify variables, making it easier to conduct experiments and gather empirical data. Hypotheses, theories, and rule sets are different concepts and do not specifically refer to the measurement or description of a property in measurable terms.

Wilhelm Wundt used the method of introspection to scientifically focus on the basic elements of the mind. Introspection involves self-observation and self-reflection, where individuals analyze their own thoughts, feelings, and sensations. Wundt believed that by breaking down conscious experiences into their basic components, he could study the structure of the mind. He established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, which marked the beginning of psychology as a formal scientific discipline. Wundt's approach influenced the development of structuralism, a school of thought that aimed to identify the fundamental components of mental processes.

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Psychologists usually examine average scores within the group when measuring large samples of people. This is because looking at the average scores provides a more representative and reliable measure of the overall performance or behavior of the group. By calculating the average, psychologists can account for individual differences and fluctuations in scores, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the group as a whole. This approach helps to minimize the impact of outliers or extreme scores that may not accurately reflect the majority of the sample.

Psychologists typically use a 5% chance that random assignment has failed to determine the odds in an experiment. This is known as the significance level or alpha level. It represents the probability of obtaining results as extreme as the observed results, assuming that the null hypothesis (no effect) is true. If the p-value (probability value) is less than 0.05 (5%), psychologists would reject the null hypothesis and conclude that random assignment has likely failed. This level of significance is commonly used in psychological research to minimize the likelihood of making a Type I error (incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis).

The correct answer draws a parallel between Edward Titchener and Sigmund Freud, suggesting that they are similar in some way. Edward Titchener was a psychologist known for his work on structuralism, which focused on analyzing the basic elements of consciousness. Similarly, Sigmund Freud was a psychologist known for his work on the unconscious mind and psychoanalysis. Therefore, the parallel being made is that Titchener's focus on inner sensations is comparable to Freud's focus on the unconscious.

The third-variable problem refers to the fact that a causal relationship between two variables cannot be inferred from the correlation between two variables. This means that even if two variables are strongly correlated, it does not necessarily mean that one variable is causing the other. There could be a third variable, known as a confounding variable, that is actually causing the observed correlation between the two variables. Therefore, it is important to consider other potential factors before concluding a causal relationship based solely on correlation.

In the late 1800s, the American Psychological Association (APA) was predominantly composed of white males. However, over time, the demographics within the APA have changed significantly. Today, approximately half of all members are American women, representing a stark contrast to the organization's composition in the past.

Mary Calkins was the first woman to serve as president of the American Psychological Association. She was a pioneering psychologist and philosopher who made significant contributions to the field of psychology. Calkins conducted research on memory and developed a system of self-psychology. She also challenged the prevailing gender norms of her time by advocating for women's rights and equality in the field of psychology. Calkins' presidency marked a significant milestone in the history of the American Psychological Association and paved the way for future women leaders in the field.

The correct answer is Leipzig in 1879. Leipzig is known for being the location of the first laboratory dedicated solely to psychology as an independent field of study. This lab, established in 1879, marked a significant milestone in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline.

Humanistic psychologists emphasized the positive aspects of human nature, focusing on personal growth, self-actualization, and individual potential. On the other hand, Freud's view of human nature was largely pessimistic, emphasizing the negative aspects such as unconscious desires and conflicts, and the influence of past traumas on behavior.

G. Stanley Hall is the correct answer because he is the one who set up the first research lab in the United States in 1881. This information is stated directly in the given statement.