Pharmacology For Podiatrists Quiz! Exam

By combining various chemicals, scientists have the ability to create compounds that mimic natural drugs or develop completely new substances. These artificially produced drugs are known as synthetic drugs. They are designed to have similar effects to their natural counterparts but are created through chemical synthesis rather than being derived from natural sources. Synthetic drugs offer the advantage of being more easily controlled in terms of purity and potency, allowing for standardized dosages and consistent effects.

Bendrofluazide is classified as a diuretic, meaning it promotes the production of urine and increases the excretion of water and electrolytes from the body. Diuretics are commonly used to treat conditions such as high blood pressure and edema. They work by inhibiting the reabsorption of sodium and chloride ions in the kidneys, which leads to increased urine production and subsequent reduction in fluid volume. This helps to lower blood pressure and relieve fluid retention. Therefore, the correct answer is that bendrofluazide acts as a diuretic.

Captopril is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called ACE inhibitors. ACE inhibitors work by blocking the action of the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). This enzyme is responsible for converting angiotensin I to angiotensin II, a hormone that causes blood vessels to narrow and promotes the release of aldosterone, which leads to increased blood pressure. By blocking ACE, captopril helps to relax and widen blood vessels, reducing blood pressure and improving blood flow. Therefore, the correct answer is angiotensin converting enzyme.

Loratadine (Claritin) is an antihistamine commonly used to relieve symptoms of allergies such as sneezing and runny nose. If the patient reports a decrease in these symptoms, it indicates that the drug is effective in managing their allergy symptoms. The other options, including increased ability to sleep through the night, decreased nausea and vomiting, and decreased number of migraines, are not directly related to the action of loratadine and therefore do not indicate its effectiveness.

Mycostatin (Nystatin) is an antifungal medication commonly used to treat fungal infections. It works by inhibiting the growth of fungi and preventing their spread. Therefore, it would be prescribed for a fungal infection. Acne vulgaris is a condition caused by inflammation of the skin's oil glands and hair follicles, and it is not treated with Mycostatin. Pruritus refers to itching and can have various causes, but Mycostatin is not specifically used to treat it. A furuncle is a boil, which is a bacterial infection, so Mycostatin would not be prescribed for this condition either.

Kidney disease would most interfere with the pharmacokinetics of medication. The kidneys play a crucial role in filtering and eliminating drugs from the body. When the kidneys are not functioning properly, the clearance of medications is impaired, leading to a buildup of drugs in the body. This can result in higher drug concentrations, increased risk of toxicity, and altered drug effectiveness. Therefore, kidney disease can significantly impact the pharmacokinetics of medication.

In a semi-conscious patient who is experiencing nausea and vomiting, the route of choice for administering medication would be rectally. This is because the patient may not be able to swallow or keep down oral medications due to their symptoms. Rectal administration allows for the medication to be absorbed directly into the bloodstream through the rectal mucosa, bypassing the gastrointestinal tract. This route can be particularly useful in cases where the patient is unable to take medications orally or intravenously.

Pharmacodynamics is the study of how drugs exert their effects on the body. It focuses on understanding the mechanisms by which drugs interact with specific targets in the body, such as receptors or enzymes, to produce a therapeutic or pharmacological response. This includes studying the molecular and cellular processes involved in drug action, as well as the relationship between drug concentration and the resulting pharmacological effect.

Nifedipine can be used to lower systemic arterial hypertension because it blocks calcium channels. Calcium channels are responsible for allowing calcium ions to enter the smooth muscle cells of blood vessels, leading to vasoconstriction. By blocking these channels, nifedipine inhibits the entry of calcium ions, resulting in relaxation and dilation of the blood vessels, thereby lowering blood pressure.

Heparin is a drug used as an anticoagulant. It works by inhibiting the formation of blood clots. It is commonly used to prevent and treat blood clots in conditions such as deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, and during certain medical procedures. Heparin acts by enhancing the activity of antithrombin III, a natural protein in the body that inhibits blood clotting. This prevents the formation of fibrin, a protein involved in blood clot formation. Heparin is administered through injection and is closely monitored to ensure the appropriate dosage and prevent any potential side effects.

A bulk laxative acts by a non-specific physicochemical mechanism. It works by increasing the water content in the stool, making it bulkier and easier to pass. Unlike the other options, which target specific receptors or enzymes in the body, a bulk laxative does not have a specific target and instead works through physical means to relieve constipation.

Lidocaine is a sodium channel blocker. It works by blocking the voltage-gated sodium channels, preventing the influx of sodium ions into the cells. This action inhibits the generation and conduction of nerve impulses, leading to local anesthesia and numbing of the area where it is applied. Lidocaine is commonly used in medical procedures, such as dental work and minor surgeries, to provide pain relief. It can also be used as a cardiac antiarrhythmic medication to regulate abnormal heart rhythms.

The coagulation cofactors (vIII & V) are important in fibrin formation because they accelerate coagulation by more than 100,000 fold. This means that they greatly speed up the process of blood clotting, allowing for the formation of a stable fibrin clot more quickly. This is crucial in preventing excessive bleeding and promoting wound healing.

Sildenafil, commonly known as Viagra, acts as an inhibitor for phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5). PDE5 is an enzyme that breaks down cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), which is responsible for smooth muscle relaxation in the blood vessels of the penis. By inhibiting PDE5, sildenafil increases the levels of cGMP, leading to enhanced blood flow and improved erectile function. Therefore, the correct answer is phosphodiesterase type 5.

Diuretics are used in blood pressure control because they decrease cardiac output and decrease plasma sodium. By decreasing cardiac output, diuretics reduce the amount of blood pumped by the heart, thereby lowering blood pressure. Additionally, by decreasing plasma sodium levels, diuretics help to reduce fluid volume in the body, which also contributes to lowering blood pressure.

ACE inhibitors can be used to treat systemic arterial hypertension because they decrease plasma volume and decrease total peripheral resistance (TPR). By decreasing plasma volume, ACE inhibitors reduce the amount of fluid in the blood vessels, which helps to lower blood pressure. Additionally, by decreasing TPR, ACE inhibitors relax and widen the blood vessels, allowing blood to flow more easily and reducing the resistance against which the heart has to pump. These combined effects help to lower blood pressure and manage hypertension.

Losartan is an angiotensin 2 receptor antagonist. This means that it blocks the action of angiotensin 2, a hormone that causes blood vessels to narrow and blood pressure to increase. By blocking the angiotensin 2 receptor, losartan helps to relax and widen blood vessels, reducing blood pressure and improving blood flow. This makes it an effective medication for treating conditions such as hypertension (high blood pressure) and heart failure.

When the heart is fully contracted, the systemic arterial pressure is 120mmHg. This is because the contraction of the heart muscles during systole leads to the ejection of blood into the arteries, increasing the pressure within them. Additionally, the mitral valve is closed during this phase to prevent backflow of blood into the left atrium, while the aortic valve is open to allow blood to flow from the left ventricle into the aorta and subsequently to the rest of the body.

Subcutaneous injections can be used for depot preparation. Depot preparations are a type of medication that is slowly released over time from a specific site in the body. By injecting the medication subcutaneously, it forms a depot or reservoir under the skin, allowing for slow and sustained release of the medication into the bloodstream. This method is often used for medications that require long-term or continuous administration.

Erythromycin binds to and inhibits the P site on bacterial ribosomes. The P site is a specific location on the ribosome where the growing polypeptide chain is held during protein synthesis. By binding to and inhibiting the P site, erythromycin prevents the ribosome from properly functioning and inhibits the synthesis of proteins in bacteria. This mechanism of action is what makes erythromycin an effective antibiotic against bacterial infections.

Vitamin K is a nutrient that is found in green vegetables. It is important for the production of certain coagulation factors in the body. However, taking antibiotics can potentially lead to a deficiency in vitamin K.

The given statement mentions that the diffusion occurs within larger body compartments and across epithelial membrane tight junctions and through pores in blood vessel endothelial lining. This suggests that the diffusion is happening through aqueous channels or pathways, as lipid effusion would not occur through tight junctions and pores. Carrier-mediated transport involves specific proteins, which is not mentioned in the statement. Endocytosis and exocytosis involve the uptake and release of larger molecules or particles, which is not mentioned in the statement either. Therefore, the most appropriate explanation for the given statement is aqueous diffusion.

Prazosin is a receptor antagonist at the alpha 1 adrenoceptor. This means that it blocks the action of alpha 1 adrenoceptors, which are found in smooth muscle tissue of blood vessels. By blocking these receptors, prazosin causes relaxation of the smooth muscle, leading to vasodilation and a decrease in blood pressure.

Cardiac output refers to the amount of blood pumped by the heart in one minute. It is calculated by multiplying the heart rate (HR) and stroke volume (SV). The given answer, "Approx 5.5l/min, HR X SV," correctly states that cardiac output is approximately 5.5 liters per minute, which is the product of heart rate and stroke volume. This indicates that the heart is pumping an adequate amount of blood to meet the body's demands.

In epilepsy, the balance between inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters is disrupted, leading to abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) is the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter, as it helps to regulate and reduce neuronal activity. Glutamate, on the other hand, is the most important excitatory neurotransmitter, as it stimulates and increases neuronal activity. Therefore, GABA acts to inhibit and calm down the brain, while glutamate acts to excite and activate the brain.

Oral formulations are subject to first-pass metabolism, which means that they are metabolized by the liver before entering the systemic circulation. This can result in a decrease in the concentration of the drug reaching the target site. Additionally, the presence of food in the stomach can delay the absorption of oral formulations, as it may interfere with the dissolution and absorption of the drug. If the oral formulation is acidic, it is best absorbed from the stomach rather than the intestines. Overall, oral formulations are generally absorbed more slowly than rectal formulations.

A reversible competitive antagonist can have the effect of shifting the agonist concentration-response curve to the right. This means that higher concentrations of the agonist are required to achieve the same response in the presence of the antagonist. However, the antagonist does not affect the slope or maximum response of the curve, meaning that the shape and overall efficacy of the agonist's response remains unchanged.

A controlled substance is a drug that has the potential for addiction and abuse. These substances are regulated by the government and their use is restricted due to their potential for harm. They can include prescription medications, such as opioids and stimulants, as well as illegal drugs like heroin and cocaine. The classification of a drug as a controlled substance indicates that it has a high potential for abuse and addiction, and strict regulations are in place to control its distribution and use.

Prostanoids are a group of lipid compounds that are involved in various physiological processes, including inflammation. One of their key roles in inflammation is to increase vascular permeability. This means that they cause the blood vessels to become more permeable, allowing fluid and immune cells to leak into the surrounding tissues. This increased permeability helps to facilitate the immune response by allowing immune cells to reach the site of inflammation more easily. Additionally, prostanoids can also cause other effects such as vasodilation and pain, but the specific statement in the question is about their role in increasing vascular permeability.

Streptokinase is used in the treatment of thrombosis because it increases the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin. Plasmin is an enzyme that helps in the breakdown of blood clots by degrading fibrin, the main component of blood clots. By increasing the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin, streptokinase promotes the dissolution of blood clots and helps in the treatment of thrombosis.

Warfarin is not used during pregnancy because it can cross the placenta and potentially harm the developing fetus. It is also a vitamin K antagonist, meaning it interferes with the body's ability to use vitamin K to form blood clots. This makes it an effective anticoagulant, but it also increases the risk of bleeding. Therefore, it is important to avoid warfarin during pregnancy and use alternative medications that are safer for both the mother and the baby.

Heparin accelerates the inactivation of thrombin by antithrombin III. Heparin acts as a cofactor for antithrombin III, enhancing its ability to inhibit thrombin. This occurs through a conformational change in antithrombin III, which is facilitated by the binding of heparin. As a result, the inactivation of thrombin is accelerated, preventing excessive blood clotting. Thrombomodulin, activated protein C, and thromboplastin do not directly accelerate the inactivation of thrombin by antithrombin III.

Minoxidil is a potassium channel opener. It works by relaxing and dilating blood vessels, which leads to increased blood flow. Minoxidil is commonly used to treat high blood pressure and stimulate hair growth. It opens potassium channels in smooth muscle cells, causing hyperpolarization and preventing calcium influx, leading to muscle relaxation. Verapamil, indomethacin, and lidocaine are not potassium channel openers and have different mechanisms of action.

Protein C is activated by the thrombin-thrombomodulin complex. Thrombomodulin is a protein on the surface of endothelial cells that binds to thrombin, causing a conformational change in thrombin's active site. This conformational change allows thrombin to activate protein C, which plays a crucial role in regulating blood clotting by inhibiting factors Va and VIIIa. The other options, thrombin, thrombin-protein S complex, and thrombin-heparin complex, do not directly activate protein C.

Heparin acts as a catalyst in the reaction between thrombin and antithrombin III. This means that heparin enhances the ability of antithrombin III to inhibit thrombin, which is an important step in the regulation of blood clotting. By accelerating this reaction, heparin helps to prevent the formation of blood clots.

Drugs that increase potassium conductance of vascular smooth muscle will cause vasodilation and hyperpolarize the cell. This is because an increase in potassium conductance allows more potassium ions to flow out of the cell, leading to hyperpolarization. Hyperpolarization reduces the excitability of the cell and relaxes the smooth muscle, resulting in vasodilation.

GTN (glyceryl trinitrate) can be used in the treatment of angina because it dilates veins, lowers end diastolic volume, and donates nitric oxide. By dilating veins, GTN reduces the workload on the heart and decreases the amount of blood returning to the heart, thus reducing the oxygen demand of the heart. Lowering end diastolic volume helps to reduce the pressure on the heart by decreasing the amount of blood in the ventricles during diastole. Lastly, GTN donates nitric oxide, which is a potent vasodilator that helps to relax and widen blood vessels, improving blood flow and reducing angina symptoms.

Thiazides are diuretics that work by blocking the apical Na: Cl co-transporter. This transporter is responsible for reabsorbing sodium and chloride ions in the distal convoluted tubules of the kidneys. By blocking this transporter, thiazides prevent the reabsorption of sodium and chloride ions, leading to increased excretion of these ions in the urine. This ultimately results in increased urine production and a decrease in blood volume, making thiazides an effective treatment for hypertension and edema.

The correct answer is EDV-ESV. Stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped out of the heart with each contraction. EDV (end-diastolic volume) refers to the amount of blood in the ventricles at the end of diastole (relaxation phase), while ESV (end-systolic volume) refers to the amount of blood in the ventricles at the end of systole (contraction phase). Therefore, stroke volume is calculated by subtracting ESV from EDV. The other options, CO/HR and HR/CO, do not accurately represent the calculation for stroke volume.

Tirofiban is used to prevent the formation of an arterial white thrombus by blocking the glycoprotein receptor GP IIa- IIIb on platelets. This receptor is responsible for platelet aggregation, and by blocking it, tirofiban prevents the formation of blood clots.

DMARDs are considered second line drugs in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, meaning they are used when first line treatments, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, are not effective. The use of DMARDs is usually preferred over non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs due to their ability to modify the course of the disease and prevent joint damage. Chloroquine, an anti-malarial drug, is an example of a DMARD that is used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. It is known to produce a beneficial effect within days of starting treatment.

Acetylcholine nicotinic receptors are examples of inotropic receptors. Inotropic receptors are a type of receptor that are directly linked to ion channels. When acetylcholine binds to nicotinic receptors, it causes the ion channels to open, allowing the flow of ions across the cell membrane. This results in a change in the electrical potential of the cell, leading to various physiological effects. In contrast, insulin receptors, acetylcholine muscarinic receptors, and beta-adrenoceptors are not inotropic receptors and do not directly affect ion channels.

Channel-linked (ionotropic) receptors, G-protein coupled (metabotropic) receptors, and kinase-linked receptors are all located in the cell. These receptors play important roles in cellular signaling and response to various stimuli. Channel-linked receptors are directly linked to ion channels and allow the flow of ions across the cell membrane. G-protein coupled receptors activate intracellular signaling pathways through interactions with G-proteins. Kinase-linked receptors activate kinase enzymes, which in turn phosphorylate target proteins and initiate cellular responses. Receptors for steroid hormones are located inside the cell, specifically in the cytoplasm or nucleus, and mediate the effects of these hormones on gene expression.

Noradrenaline can increase TPR (total peripheral resistance) by constricting arterioles and acting on alpha-adrenoceptors. Constricting arterioles reduces the diameter of these blood vessels, leading to increased resistance to blood flow. Acting on alpha-adrenoceptors causes vasoconstriction, further increasing TPR. By constricting arterioles and acting on alpha-adrenoceptors, noradrenaline helps to regulate blood pressure and maintain adequate perfusion to vital organs.

Drug metabolism refers to the process by which the body breaks down and transforms drugs into different substances. It typically occurs in the liver, not the kidneys. During metabolism, drugs are often converted into more hydrophilic (water-soluble) forms, which aids in their excretion through the kidneys. This is because hydrophilic substances are more easily eliminated from the body through urine. Additionally, drug metabolism can result in the formation of less active metabolites, which may contribute to the drug's overall effectiveness or potential side effects.

Spirolactone is a medication that is commonly used as a diuretic. It works by blocking the aldosterone receptors, which are responsible for reabsorbing sodium and water in the kidneys. By blocking these receptors, spirolactone prevents the reabsorption of sodium and water, leading to increased excretion of urine and a decrease in plasma volume. This decrease in plasma volume helps to reduce fluid retention and can be beneficial in conditions such as congestive heart failure and edema.

The synthesis of noradrenaline can be reduced by inhibiting the enzymes involved in its production. Tyrosine hydroxylase is an enzyme that converts tyrosine to L-DOPA, which is a precursor for noradrenaline. Therefore, inhibiting tyrosine hydroxylase with metitosine can reduce the synthesis of noradrenaline. Additionally, DOPA decarboxylase is an enzyme that converts L-DOPA to dopamine, which is further converted to noradrenaline. Inhibiting DOPA decarboxylase with methyl-DOPA can also reduce the synthesis of noradrenaline. Lignocaine and cocaine are not known to have inhibitory effects on these enzymes, so they would not reduce the synthesis of noradrenaline.

The treatment of multiple sclerosis involves various approaches. Acute attacks are commonly treated with corticosteroids or ACTH, which help reduce inflammation and alleviate symptoms. Co-polymer activates anti-inflammatory T-cells, which can help modulate the immune response and reduce inflammation in the long term. However, the development of neutralizing antibodies can limit the effectiveness of beta interferon 1b in some patients, affecting its activity in up to 29% of patients after 2 years. Fampridine, on the other hand, acts as a calcium channel blocker and is not directly related to the treatment of acute attacks or the modulation of the immune response in multiple sclerosis.

The correct answer suggests that most cases of tuberculosis arise from primary infection, which includes a focus of primary infection with a calcified lesion and an ipsilateral presentation. It also states that patients with Ghon complex are always infectious and that miliary TB is most likely to occur in severely immunocompromised patients.

The first statement is true because arterial blood pressure is determined by the product of cardiac output (the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute) and total peripheral resistance (TPR, the resistance to blood flow in the arteries).

The second statement is also true because most forms of systemic arterial hypertension (high blood pressure) are caused by an increase in TPR, which leads to increased resistance to blood flow in the arteries.

The third and fourth statements are false because vasodilation (widening of blood vessels) in systemic arterial hypertension can be due to reduced TPR, as dilated blood vessels offer less resistance to blood flow.