Foreign Pharmacy Graduate Equivalency Examination Prep Test

Purpuras refers to the presence of small, flat, purple or red spots on the skin or mucous membranes. These spots occur due to bleeding underneath the skin, resulting in the accumulation of blood. Wide-spread hemorrhage with a size range of 0.3-1cm is characteristic of purpuras. Acute inflammation of a tissue, varicose veins, petechiae, and echymoses do not specifically involve widespread hemorrhage of this size range, making purpuras the correct answer.

Echymoses refers to the discoloration of the skin caused by bleeding underneath the skin, typically resulting from bruising. It is characterized by larger areas of purple or blue discoloration, often caused by trauma or injury. In contrast, petechiae are tiny red or purple spots caused by small broken blood vessels, while purpuras are larger purple or red spots caused by bleeding under the skin. Varicose veins are swollen and twisted veins that usually occur in the legs. Therefore, the presence of 1cm hemorrhages aligns with the description of echymoses.

The correct answer is "prodromal period." The prodromal period refers to the time when the initial symptoms of an infection start to appear. This period occurs after the incubation period, where the pathogen is replicating in the body, but before the acme period, which is the peak of the infection. During the prodromal period, individuals may experience mild symptoms such as fatigue, headache, or a general feeling of being unwell. This period serves as an early warning sign that an infection is developing and allows individuals to take necessary precautions or seek medical attention.

In cardiogenic shock, the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs. This leads to a reduced cardiac output (CO), as the heart is not able to effectively pump blood out to the rest of the body. Additionally, there is an increased systemic vascular resistance (SVR), which refers to the resistance to blood flow in the blood vessels throughout the body. The increased SVR is a compensatory mechanism in response to the reduced CO, as the body tries to maintain blood pressure and perfusion to vital organs. Therefore, the correct answer is that in cardiogenic shock, CO is reduced and SVR is increased.

In obstructive shock, there is a blockage or obstruction in the blood flow, leading to a decrease in cardiac output (CO). This means that the heart is unable to pump an adequate amount of blood to meet the body's needs. At the same time, there is an increase in systemic vascular resistance (SVR), which refers to the resistance to blood flow in the blood vessels throughout the body. This increased resistance further impairs the flow of blood. Therefore, the correct answer is that in obstructive shock, cardiac output is reduced and systemic vascular resistance is increased.

ketoconazol

The correct answer is "hinge region and CH2 and CH3 domain of the heavy chain." The Fc fragment of an antibody consists of the constant region of the heavy chain. This region includes the hinge region, which allows flexibility and movement of the antibody, and the CH2 and CH3 domains, which are involved in binding to immune cells and mediating effector functions such as complement activation and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC). The light chain and VH1 and CH1 domains are part of the Fab fragment, which is responsible for antigen binding.

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The correct answer includes the heavy chain types alpha, gamma, delta, epsilon, and mu. Kappa and lambda are not heavy chain types, but instead refer to light chains. Therefore, the correct heavy chain types are alpha, gamma, delta, epsilon, and mu.

The correct answer is "abnormalities of normal growth and development caused by extrinsic exposures." This refers to disruptions in the normal development of an organism caused by external factors or exposures, rather than genetic or intrinsic causes. These external factors could include environmental toxins, infections, or maternal drug use, among others. These exposures can lead to defects or abnormalities in the form, shape, or position of body parts during fetal development.

phenylbutanone

The correct answer is azlocillin, mezlocillin, and piperacillin. These penicillins acquired an extended spectrum of activity by introducing an alpha-acylureido group into the alpha-position of the side chain benzyl carbon atom of penicillin G. This modification allowed these penicillins to have a broader range of antimicrobial activity compared to the other options listed. Methicillin and nafcillin, oxacillin, cloxacillin, and dicloxacillin, ampicillin, amoxicillin, and bacampicillin, and carbenicillin and ticarcillin do not have this specific modification in their structure.

Aldosterone directly stimulates the retention of sodium and water. Aldosterone is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands that plays a crucial role in regulating fluid and electrolyte balance in the body. It acts on the kidneys, specifically on the distal tubules and collecting ducts, to increase the reabsorption of sodium and water back into the bloodstream. This helps to maintain blood volume and blood pressure. Therefore, the correct answer is that aldosterone directly stimulates the retention of sodium and water.

When the donor and recipient in a transplant procedure are genetically related, it is called an allograft. In this type of transplant, the donor and recipient share some degree of genetic similarity, which reduces the risk of rejection. Allografts are commonly used in situations where a close family member or a genetically matched individual is available as a donor. This type of transplant offers a higher chance of success compared to other graft types, such as autografts (using the patient's own tissue), isografts (using tissue from an identical twin), or xenografts (using tissue from a different species).

Lymphoid cells are a type of white blood cells that are involved in the immune response. NK cells, B-lymphocytes, and T-lymphocytes are all examples of lymphoid cells. NK cells are a type of cytotoxic lymphocyte that play a role in the innate immune response by killing infected or abnormal cells. B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes are both involved in the adaptive immune response. B-lymphocytes produce antibodies, while T-lymphocytes help coordinate the immune response and directly kill infected cells. Therefore, NK cells, B-lymphocytes, and T-lymphocytes are all examples of lymphoid cells.

In hypovolemic shock, there is a significant decrease in blood volume, leading to a decrease in cardiac output. The heart pumps less blood per minute, resulting in decreased cardiac output. Additionally, the body tries to compensate for the decreased blood volume by constricting the blood vessels, increasing systemic vascular resistance. This helps to maintain blood pressure and redirect blood flow to vital organs. Therefore, in a patient experiencing hypovolemic shock, cardiac output is decreased and systemic vascular resistance is increased.

This answer correctly describes the function of the complement cascade, which is to produce proteins that mediate inflammation. These proteins cause vasodilation, increase vascular permeability, promote chemotaxis and phagocytosis, and initiate histamine release.

The correct answer includes the spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, and Peyer's patches. These are all examples of secondary lymphoid organs. Secondary lymphoid organs are where immune responses are initiated and where immune cells, such as lymphocytes, are activated. The spleen acts as a filter for blood and helps remove old or damaged red blood cells. Lymph nodes are small bean-shaped structures that filter lymph fluid and help trap and destroy foreign substances. Tonsils are located in the throat and help protect against infections. Peyer's patches are found in the small intestine and are involved in immune responses against pathogens in the digestive system.

This question is asking about the types of light chains. The correct answer is "kappa" and "lambda". These are the two types of light chains found in antibodies. Alpha, gamma, delta, epsilon, and mu are not types of light chains, but rather different types of heavy chains. Therefore, they are not applicable in this context.

CD4 is a protein found on the surface of T-helper cells, which are a type of white blood cell involved in the immune response. CD4 acts as a co-receptor for the T-cell receptor, helping to activate and regulate the immune response. The other proteins mentioned, CD8, CD2, and CD11, are also found on the surface of various immune cells, but they are not specifically associated with T-helper cells. Therefore, the correct answer is CD4.

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The V L and VH domains interact to form the antigen binding site in an antibody. The V L domain, also known as the variable light chain domain, is responsible for the variable region of the light chain of the antibody, while the VH domain, also known as the variable heavy chain domain, is responsible for the variable region of the heavy chain. These two domains come together to create the antigen binding site, which is the region of the antibody that specifically recognizes and binds to the antigen. The CL and CH1 domains are not involved in forming the antigen binding site.

The given answer suggests that the arthus reaction is caused by subcutaneous immune complex formation occurring at a local site and around the walls of small blood vessels. This means that when foreign antigens are injected into the body, immune complexes are formed and deposited in the blood vessels near the injection site. This leads to an inflammatory response, causing symptoms such as redness, swelling, and pain at the site of injection.

amphotericin B

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The correct answer is "defects in normal development as a result of an abnormality of intrinsic cause (genetic)". This means that malformation refers to the abnormalities in the development of a body part due to genetic factors. It implies that there is an inherent issue in the genetic makeup of the individual, leading to the malformation during the normal process of development.

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clhotrimazole

phenylbutanone

Mitogens are molecules that activate B and T-lymphocytes by binding and crosslinking the antigen receptors outside the antigen binding site. The given options are all examples of known mitogens except for Ficoll. Ficoll is a synthetic polymer that is commonly used in laboratory procedures for cell separation but does not possess the ability to activate lymphocytes. Therefore, Ficoll is the correct answer as it is not a mitogen.

Carbenicillin and ticarcillin are penicillins that have acquired an extended spectrum of activity by introducing a polar group (acidic) into the alpha-position of the side chain benzyl carbon atom of penicillin G. This modification allows them to be effective against a broader range of bacteria, including some that are resistant to other penicillins. Methicillin, nafcillin, oxacillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin, ampicillin, amoxicillin, bacampicillin, azlocillin, mezlocillin, and piperacillin do not have this specific modification and therefore do not possess the same extended spectrum of activity.

Angiotensin II directly stimulates the release of aldosterone. Aldosterone is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands that plays a role in regulating blood pressure and electrolyte balance. When angiotensin II binds to receptors in the adrenal glands, it triggers the release of aldosterone. Aldosterone then acts on the kidneys to increase the reabsorption of sodium and water, leading to increased blood volume and blood pressure. Therefore, angiotensin II indirectly affects the retention of sodium and water by stimulating the release of aldosterone.

the others are chronic complications

The myeloid cells listed in the answer are mococytes, macrophages, granulocytes, eosinophils, neutrophils, and basophils. These cells are part of the myeloid lineage of immune cells, which are derived from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. They play crucial roles in innate immunity and inflammation. Mococytes, macrophages, and granulocytes are phagocytic cells that engulf and destroy pathogens. Eosinophils, neutrophils, and basophils are granulocytes that release various substances to combat infections and regulate immune responses. These myeloid cells collectively contribute to the body's defense against pathogens and help maintain immune homeostasis.

Thromboxanes are produced from arachidonic acid and through the cyclooxygenase pathway. They facilitate platelet aggregation for the process of healing and repair. Additionally, they induce vasodilation and increase vascular permeability. Therefore, the correct answer is I and II and IV.

The primary lymphoid organs are responsible for the production and maturation of lymphocytes, which are a type of white blood cell involved in the immune response. The bone marrow is one of the primary lymphoid organs where B cells, a type of lymphocyte, are produced. The thymus is another primary lymphoid organ where T cells, another type of lymphocyte, mature. These two organs play a crucial role in the development of a functional immune system.

In distributive shock, there is a decrease in systemic vascular resistance (SVR), which refers to the resistance to blood flow in the blood vessels. This decrease in SVR causes the blood vessels to dilate, leading to a decrease in blood pressure and an increase in cardiac output (CO) to compensate for the decreased SVR. Therefore, the correct answer is that CO is normal to elevated and SVR is decreased.

natamycin

Methicillin and nafcillin are not included in the answer because they do not contain bulky groups at the alpha-carbon of the acyl group. Ampicillin, amoxicillin, bacampicillin, carbenicillin, ticarcillin, azlocillin, mezlocillin, and piperacillin are also not included because they do not have bulky groups at the alpha-carbon of the acyl group. Therefore, the correct answer is oxacillin, cloxacillin, and dicloxacillin as they have bulky groups at the alpha-carbon of the acyl group, which provides steric hindrance and confers penicillase resistance.

The immune system recognizes antigens, which are foreign substances that can trigger an immune response. B-lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that produce antibodies, which are proteins that bind to antigens and help to neutralize them. This is known as antibody-mediated immunity. T-lymphocytes are another type of white blood cell that directly attack and destroy cells infected with pathogens, which is known as cell-mediated immunity. Immunoglobulins are antibodies that are produced by B-lymphocytes. Opsonization is the process by which antibodies coat pathogens, making them more easily recognized and engulfed by phagocytes. Memory cells are long-lived cells that "remember" a specific pathogen, allowing for a quicker and more effective immune response upon subsequent exposure.

ACE (Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme) is responsible for converting angiotensin I to angiotensin II. Angiotensin I is an inactive form of the hormone, and ACE plays a crucial role in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system by converting it into angiotensin II. Angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstrictor and also stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal glands. Aldosterone, in turn, promotes the retention of sodium and water in the kidneys, leading to increased blood volume and blood pressure. Therefore, the correct answer is that ACE converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II.

The correct answer is the conversion of plasminogen into plasmin for the degradation of fibrin clots and activation of the complement cascade. Plasminogen is converted into plasmin, which is an enzyme responsible for breaking down fibrin clots. This process is important for preventing excessive clot formation and promoting clot dissolution. Additionally, plasmin can also activate the complement cascade, which is a series of immune system reactions that help to eliminate pathogens and promote inflammation.

The given answer lists various components and processes involved in non-specific immunity. These include the skin, which acts as a physical barrier to prevent entry of pathogens, lysozyme in saliva and tears that helps in killing bacteria, low stomach and urine pH that create an acidic environment to inhibit microbial growth, bile, digestive enzymes, and peristalsis that aid in the digestion and elimination of pathogens, complement system that enhances the immune response, inflammation that helps in recruiting immune cells to the site of infection, macrophages and phagocytes that engulf and destroy pathogens, and antigens that stimulate the immune response.

Renin is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. It is responsible for converting angiotensinogen, a protein produced by the liver, into angiotensin I. This conversion is the first step in the activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, which ultimately leads to the production of angiotensin II. Angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstrictor and also stimulates the release of aldosterone, which promotes the retention of sodium and water by the kidneys. Therefore, the correct answer is that renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I.

Prostaglandin is a lipid compound that is produced from arachidonic acid, making statement I correct. It is also produced through the cyclooxygenase pathway, validating statement II. Prostaglandins are known to induce vasodilation and increase vascular permeability, supporting statement III. However, there is no mention of prostaglandins facilitating platelet aggregation for the process of healing and repair, making statement IV incorrect. Therefore, the correct answer is I and II and III.

The correct answer includes conditions that are associated with type II hypersensitivity reactions. Type II hypersensitivity is an immune response that occurs when antibodies target specific cells or tissues in the body, leading to inflammation and damage. Transfusion-related reactions, newborn hemolytic disease, autoimmune diseases (such as Goodpasture's syndrome and myasthenia gravis) are all examples of conditions that involve type II hypersensitivity reactions. In these conditions, the immune system mistakenly targets and attacks the body's own cells or tissues, leading to various symptoms and complications.

The given answer includes three conditions that are associated with type III hypersensitivity reactions: serum sickness, arthus reaction, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Type III hypersensitivity occurs when there is an excessive immune response to antigens that form immune complexes, leading to inflammation and tissue damage. Serum sickness and arthus reaction are both characterized by immune complex deposition in tissues, while systemic lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disease where immune complexes are formed and deposited throughout the body. Therefore, these conditions are all examples of type III hypersensitivity reactions.

Thromboxanes are produced from arachidonic acid and are also produced by the lipooxygenase pathway. They initiate chemotactic activities for white blood cells, causing vasodilation and increasing vascular permeability. Therefore, the correct answer is II and IV.

Upper respiratory tract infections can be caused by a variety of bacteria and viruses. Some of the bacteria that can cause these infections include streptococcus pyogenes, streptococcus pneumoniae, haemophilus influenzae, moraxela catarrhalis, bordetella pertussis, corynebacterium diphteriae, mycobacterium tuberculosis, klebsiella pneumoniae, serratia marcescens, Legionella pneumophila, and Chlamydia pneumoniae. Additionally, several viruses can also cause upper respiratory tract infections, such as rhinoviruses, influenza type A and B, parainfluenzae type 1, 2, and 3, coronaviruses, and adenoviruses.