Chapter 9 Food: Getting IT, Growing IT, Eating IT, And Passing IT Around

The earliest evidence of domestication can be traced back to sheep, goats, and cattle in the Old World. These species were among the first to be domesticated by humans, with archaeological and genetic evidence supporting their early domestication. Pigs, camels, and horses were also domesticated later, but sheep, goats, and cattle were the earliest to leave evidence of domestication.

Foraging is a term used to describe the activity of searching for food in the wild by hunting and gathering. It involves hunting animals and gathering edible plants, nuts, and berries as a means of survival. Therefore, the correct answer is "hunting-gathering".

Anthropologists have traditionally focused on the study of foraging groups because all humans were foragers for over 90% of human history. This means that foraging was the primary mode of subsistence for the majority of human existence, making it an important aspect to understand human culture, behavior, and social organization. By studying foraging groups, anthropologists can gain insights into the origins of human societies, the development of technology, and the evolution of human behavior.

Domestication of animals began around 10,000 years ago. This is supported by archaeological evidence that suggests the domestication of animals such as sheep, goats, and pigs during the Neolithic period. This period marked the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture, and humans started to selectively breed and control the reproduction of certain animals for their own benefit. This allowed for a more settled lifestyle and the development of agriculture-based societies. Therefore, the appearance of domestic animals other than dogs can be traced back to around 10,000 years ago.

Peaceful coexistence with neighbors is not a defining characteristic of civilization because throughout history, civilizations have often engaged in conflicts and wars with neighboring civilizations. The defining characteristics of civilization include record keeping, which allows for the development of written language and the accumulation of knowledge; metallurgy, which is the ability to work with and manipulate metals for tools and weapons; and centralized government, which establishes a system of laws, leadership, and organization within a society.

Balanced reciprocity refers to a system of exchange where there is an expectation of equivalent exchange or mutual assistance. In this scenario, the person helped the family move to a new home, and now they expect the family to reciprocate the favor by helping them move. This demonstrates a balanced exchange of assistance, where both parties are expected to contribute and receive help in return.

Intensive foraging refers to the practice of actively searching for and exploiting new food sources that became available after the recession of the Pleistocene glaciers 12,000 years ago. This period marked the end of the last ice age and the beginning of a warmer climate, which led to the emergence of new plant and animal species. Intensive foraging involved a more focused and deliberate effort to gather and hunt these new food sources, allowing human populations to sustain themselves and thrive in these areas. This term is used to describe the transitional phase between hunting and gathering and the development of agriculture.

The first evidence for plant domestication is believed to be 11,000 years old. This suggests that humans began cultivating and growing plants for their own use and benefit around this time. This evidence could include the discovery of ancient agricultural tools, the presence of cultivated crops in archaeological sites, or the analysis of plant remains found in ancient settlements. This milestone in human history marked a significant shift from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled farming communities.

The presence of detailed written records about selective breeding procedures is actually evidence of early animal domestication, as it suggests a level of organization and intentional breeding practices. Therefore, this option is not evidence of early animal domestication.

Pastoral societies are defined as those that rely on herding animals as the main source of their food and livelihood. This means that their subsistence and survival are dependent on the animals they herd. They may also live outside of urban areas and have a nomadic lifestyle, constantly moving to find new grazing areas for their animals. The domestication of animals is a key characteristic of pastoral societies, as it allows them to control and utilize the animals for their needs.

Humans probably began meat-eating as scavengers because scavenging would have been an easier and less risky way to obtain meat compared to hunting large game or herding animals. Scavenging would involve finding and consuming the remains of animals that had already been killed by other predators, reducing the need for direct confrontation with dangerous animals. Additionally, early humans may have lacked the tools and skills necessary for effective hunting or herding, making scavenging a more accessible option for obtaining meat. Fishing, on the other hand, would have required proximity to bodies of water, which may not have been readily available to early humans.

In foraging societies, the division of labor is characterized by men primarily engaging in hunting activities, while women focus on gathering tasks. This division is based on the biological differences between men and women, where hunting requires physical strength and endurance, while gathering involves knowledge of plants and their locations. This division allows for efficient resource acquisition and ensures the survival of the group.

Anthropologists formerly emphasized hunting among hunter-gatherers for all the other reasons mentioned in the options: hunting was seen as more exciting and romantic, hunter-gatherers placed a social emphasis on hunting, and hunting is a more dangerous and tenuous activity. However, the fact that hunting was the major source of food was not a reason emphasized by anthropologists.

Most hunter-gatherer societies rely heavily on gathered plants for their diet. This is because plants are abundant in nature and provide a variety of nutrients, including carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. Hunting and fishing may provide a source of protein, but it is often unpredictable and requires more effort. Domesticated food sources are not typically available in hunter-gatherer societies, as they rely on the natural resources in their environment. Therefore, gathered plants are the primary source of sustenance for most hunter-gatherer societies.

The explanation for the correct answer is that the early humans in the New World not being as intellectually advanced is not a reason for the lateness of domestication. This is because the level of intellectual advancement does not directly correlate with the ability to domesticate plants and animals. Other factors such as the availability of domesticable species and the abundance of wild food sources are more significant in determining the timing of domestication.

The correct answer is Southwest Asia because it is widely accepted that the first evidence of plant domestication, specifically the cultivation of wheat and barley, originated in the Fertile Crescent region of Southwest Asia. This area, which includes present-day countries such as Iraq, Syria, and Turkey, has a long history of agriculture and is considered the birthplace of agriculture. Archaeological evidence, such as the discovery of ancient farming tools and the presence of domesticated plant remains, supports the idea that plant domestication began in Southwest Asia.

A society's techniques for acquiring food resources refers to the way in which they obtain their food. This can include methods such as hunting and gathering, agriculture, or fishing. The term "subsistence pattern" encompasses all of these techniques and reflects the society's overall strategy for meeting their basic food needs. It goes beyond just shopping habits or the market system, as it encompasses the broader cultural and economic practices related to food acquisition.

Wheat was not a New World domesticate. While maize (corn), beans, and potatoes were all domesticated in the New World, wheat originated in the Old World and was not present in the Americas until it was brought over by European settlers.

Pastoralists are known for their emphasis on animal herds and their nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. They often move from one place to another in search of grazing land for their animals. Additionally, they have a sexual division of labor where men typically take care of the herds and women are responsible for tasks like milking and making dairy products. However, it is not true that pastoralists are egalitarian with regard to all resources. They may have social hierarchies and unequal distribution of resources within their communities.

The San people view "insulting the meat" as a way to maintain their egalitarian outlook. This means that by insulting the meat, they are preventing any individual from feeling superior or gaining higher status within the community. It reinforces the idea that everyone is equal and should be treated as such.

Horticultural societies are known for their reliance on agriculture and plant cultivation for sustenance. Unlike agricultural societies, horticultural societies do not typically have full-time labor specialists who specialize in specific tasks related to agriculture. Instead, in horticultural societies, individuals engage in a variety of tasks related to food production, such as planting, harvesting, and tending to crops, alongside other activities. Therefore, the statement "full-time labor specialists" is not generally true of horticultural societies.

The correct answer is 12,000 years ago. This is because archaeological evidence suggests that the domestication of dogs began around this time. Fossil remains and genetic studies have shown that dogs were domesticated from wolves, and the earliest evidence of this domestication dates back to approximately 12,000 years ago. This coincides with the development of agriculture and settled human communities, where dogs were likely used for hunting, herding, and guarding purposes.

In anthropology, the term "civilization" refers to societies that have cities and exhibit their characteristics. This means that the presence of cities, with their organized structures, infrastructure, and social systems, is a defining factor of civilization in anthropology. It does not necessarily imply the presence of ethics and morals, the absence of warfare and violence, or the existence of highly developed forms of art and literature.

The correct answer is 12,000 years ago. This is because the first evidence of food production, such as agriculture and domestication of animals, dates back to around this time period. Prior to this, humans relied on hunting and gathering for their food. The development of food production marked a significant shift in human civilization, leading to the establishment of settled communities and the development of complex societies.

Dogs were likely the first animal species to be domesticated because they have a long history of being bred and trained by humans for various purposes, such as hunting, herding, and companionship. The domestication of dogs is believed to have occurred thousands of years ago, making them one of the earliest domesticated animals. Dogs have also played a significant role in human civilization, serving as loyal companions and assisting in various tasks, which further supports the idea that they were one of the first animals to be domesticated.

General reciprocity refers to the exchange of goods and services without the expectation of an immediate or equal return. In foraging societies, where resources are often shared and cooperation is essential for survival, general reciprocity is a common form of distribution. This means that individuals give and receive goods and services freely, without keeping track of exact quantities or expecting immediate repayment. Instead, there is a general understanding that everyone will contribute and share according to their abilities and needs. This form of distribution helps to foster social cohesion and ensure the well-being of the community as a whole.

A market system is distinguished by the presence of money and a profit motive. Money is essential in a market system as it serves as a medium of exchange, allowing individuals to buy and sell goods and services. The profit motive is also crucial as it drives individuals and businesses to produce and sell goods in order to make a profit. This creates competition, which leads to innovation, efficiency, and economic growth within the market system.

The Hutterites, with regard to their internal economics, could be considered a rank society. This suggests that they have a hierarchical social structure based on individuals' levels of authority, power, and prestige within the community. In a rank society, individuals are ranked based on their social status and have varying degrees of access to resources and opportunities. This implies that the Hutterites have a system of social stratification where individuals are placed in different ranks or positions based on their economic roles and responsibilities within the community.

During the Pleistocene, the Earth experienced several glacial periods, which caused a significant change in the environment. As the glaciers advanced and receded, they created new habitats and forced animals to migrate to different areas in search of food and shelter. This likely led to an increase in big game hunting in glacial areas during this time, as humans adapted to the changing landscape and took advantage of the abundance of large animals.

Agriculture, as opposed to horticulture, is found in areas that require more advanced farming technologies. This means that agriculture is practiced in regions where advanced farming techniques, machinery, and technologies are necessary for successful cultivation and production.

The answer states that there are no societies left that are true foragers. This suggests that the traditional way of life for foraging societies has significantly diminished or disappeared entirely. It implies that modern societies have transitioned to different modes of subsistence and no longer rely solely on foraging for their food.

The farming ideas of the Soviet scientist Lysenko did not work because they were based on Lamarckian ideas about evolution. Lamarckianism is a theory that suggests that acquired traits can be passed on to the next generation. However, this theory has been discredited by the scientific community as it contradicts the principles of genetics and natural selection. Lysenko's agricultural practices, which relied on the belief that plants could be trained to adapt to their environment and pass on these acquired traits, ultimately proved to be ineffective and led to significant agricultural failures in the Soviet Union.

In the egalitarian San society, successful healers are sometimes allowed to have more than one wife. This suggests that having multiple wives is a symbol of higher status or power within the community. It implies that healers who are skilled and successful in their practice are rewarded with the privilege of having multiple wives, which sets them apart from others in the society. This practice may be seen as a way to recognize and honor the healers' contributions to the community and their elevated position within the social hierarchy.

Intensive foraging refers to the exploitation of new food sources after the final glacial recession. This means that after the ice age, when new areas became available for human habitation, people started to actively search for and utilize these new food sources in order to survive and thrive. This could include hunting, gathering, and other methods of obtaining food from the newly accessible environments.

Foraging societies have to practice methods to limit their birth rate. This is because foragers rely on hunting and gathering for their food, which requires a certain amount of mobility and flexibility. Having a large population would put a strain on the available resources, making it difficult to sustain everyone's needs. Therefore, foraging societies often use various methods such as breastfeeding for extended periods, spacing out pregnancies, or using natural contraceptives to control their population size and ensure their survival.

Foraging societies are typically characterized by egalitarian social structures, meaning that there is a lack of social hierarchy and everyone has equal access to resources and decision-making. They are also typically nomadic, moving from one location to another in search of food and resources. Additionally, foraging societies often have a polytheistic belief system, worshiping multiple gods. However, individual land holdings are not typical of foraging societies. Instead, resources are typically shared and there is a communal approach to land and resource use.

The use of mechanical sources of energy is a key factor that distinguishes industrial societies from agricultural ones. Industrial societies rely on machines and technology to power their production processes, while agricultural societies primarily rely on human and animal labor. This reliance on mechanical sources of energy allows industrial societies to achieve higher levels of productivity and efficiency, leading to advancements in various sectors such as manufacturing and transportation. In contrast, agricultural societies are characterized by their dependence on manual labor and traditional farming methods.

The evidence for the transition to food producing is supported by artifacts used in food producing and processing, remains of ancient grains, and biological differences between wild and domestic plants and animals. Ancient paintings of people planting do not provide direct evidence of the transition to food producing as they are subjective representations and do not provide concrete archaeological evidence.

Bison (buffalo) is the correct answer because it was not a New World domesticate. Llamas, turkeys, and guinea pigs were all domesticated in the New World and were used by indigenous people for various purposes such as transportation, food, and textiles. However, bison (buffalo) were not domesticated by Native Americans and were instead hunted for their meat, hides, and bones. They were an important resource for Native Americans but were not considered a domesticated animal.

Foraging societies being egalitarian means that there are no recognized, formalized status or wealth differences. In these societies, everyone is considered equal and there are no established hierarchies based on social status or wealth. This implies that individuals within the society have equal access to resources and decision-making power, and there is no system of privilege or inequality based on wealth or social standing.

The presence of written records about planting, harvesting, and storage is not evidence of early plant domestication. While the other options provide tangible evidence such as differences between wild and domestic plants, tools used for harvesting and processing, and pottery and baskets for food storage, the absence of written records does not necessarily indicate the absence of early plant domestication. It is possible that early societies did not have a writing system or did not record their agricultural practices in written form. Therefore, the lack of written records does not disprove early plant domestication.

Agricultural societies are characterized by the use of animal labor and complex tools, full-time labor specialists, and large, sedentary populations. However, they typically have social stratification, meaning that there are distinct social classes or hierarchies within the society.

Plows are not a typical feature of horticulture. Horticulture typically involves the cultivation and management of plants, often on a smaller scale. It relies on human energy sources, such as manual labor, rather than mechanical equipment like plows. Digging sticks and hoes, on the other hand, are commonly used tools in horticulture for tasks such as planting, weeding, and cultivating the soil.

According to Kent Flannery, farming most likely started in poor areas at the margins of rich ones. This means that early farmers settled in areas that were not as naturally resource-rich as their surrounding regions. Flannery's suggestion implies that the development of agriculture was driven by the need to adapt and survive in less favorable environments, leading to the cultivation of crops and the transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to an agricultural one.

Meat distribution among the San is not an example of redistribution because redistribution typically involves the transfer of resources or wealth from one group or individual to another in order to address inequality. In the case of the San, meat distribution is likely a communal practice where resources are shared within the community, rather than being redistributed to address inequality.

In a society where socioeconomic strata are stable and unchanging, individuals are born into a particular social class or caste and remain in that position for their entire lives. This suggests that social mobility is limited, and individuals have little opportunity to move up or down the social ladder. The term "caste" refers to a rigid social system in which individuals are assigned to a specific social group based on their birth, and this system remains unchanged over time. Therefore, caste is the most appropriate term to describe a society with stable and unchanging socioeconomic strata.