Early Modern History of Europe Lesson: Major Events and Wars
Lesson Overview
- The Late 15th Century: Renaissance, Exploration, and Centralized States
- The 16th Century: Reformation, Religious Conflicts, and Empires
- The 17th Century: Absolutism, Constitutionalism, and Wars
- The 18th Century: Enlightenment, Power Struggles, and Shifting Alliances
The Early Modern Period (1450–1789) marked a profound transformation in European history. This era witnessed the decline of feudalism, the rise of powerful nation-states, the fragmentation of religious unity due to the Protestant Reformation, and the birth of global empires through overseas exploration. Intellectual revolutions such as the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment laid the foundation for modern science and governance.
The Late 15th Century: Renaissance, Exploration, and Centralized States
Fall of Constantinople (1453) and its Impact
- The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in 1453, ending the Byzantine Empire.
- This event shifted European trade routes, leading to increased efforts in overseas exploration.
- Greek scholars fleeing to Western Europe helped fuel the Renaissance.
European Maritime Expansion
| Country | Key Explorers | Key Discoveries |
|---|---|---|
| Portugal | Vasco da Gama | Reached India (1498) |
| Spain | Christopher Columbus | Reached the Americas (1492) |
| England | John Cabot | Explored North America (1497) |
- Maritime exploration laid the foundation for European colonial empires, shifting economic power away from Mediterranean trade centers to Atlantic coastal nations.
The Renaissance and Printing Press
- The Renaissance, beginning in Italy, emphasized classical learning, humanism, and artistic innovation.
- Johannes Gutenberg's printing press (1450s) revolutionized communication, enabling the rapid spread of new ideas, including those that would later challenge the Catholic Church.
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The 16th Century: Reformation, Religious Conflicts, and Empires
The Protestant Reformation (1517–1555)
- In 1517, Martin Luther initiated the Protestant Reformation, protesting Church corruption.
- Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anglicanism emerged as key Protestant movements.
- The Peace of Augsburg (1555) allowed German princes to choose their state's religion.
Religious Conflicts and the Habsburg Struggles
Conflict | Key Figures | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| Reformation in the Holy Roman Empire | Charles V | Led to Protestant vs. Catholic wars |
| French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) | Henry IV | Ended with the Edict of Nantes granting tolerance to Huguenots |
| Dutch Revolt (1568–1648) | Philip II of Spain, Dutch Protestants | Led to Dutch independence (1648) |
- Charles V, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain, struggled to control the Protestant uprisings while also defending against the Ottoman Empire, which advanced into Central Europe.
The Ottoman Threat and Expansion into Europe
- Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent expanded into Hungary and besieged Vienna (1529).
- European monarchs viewed the Ottoman advance as a major threat, diverting resources to defense.
- The Ottoman threat weakened Charles V, who later abdicated and divided his empire between Philip II (Spain) and Ferdinand I (Austria).
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The 17th Century: Absolutism, Constitutionalism, and Wars
The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) and the Peace of Westphalia
- Began as a Protestant revolt against Habsburg rule in the Holy Roman Empire.
- Escalated into a broader European conflict involving France, Sweden, Spain, and Austria.
- The Peace of Westphalia (1648) reshaped Europe:
- Recognized Calvinism alongside Lutheranism and Catholicism.
- France gained territory on its Spanish and German borders.
- Established state sovereignty, weakening the Holy Roman Emperor.
Rise of Absolutism: The Case of France
| Monarch | Achievements | Policies |
|---|---|---|
| Louis XIV (France) | Strengthened central authority | Built Versailles, revoked Edict of Nantes |
| Peter the Great (Russia) | Modernized Russia | Gained a warm-water port on the Black Sea |
| Frederick the Great (Prussia) | Strengthened the army | Expanded Prussian territory |
- Louis XIV's absolutism centralized France's power, reduced the nobility's influence, and controlled religion.
England's Constitutionalism: The English Civil War and Glorious Revolution
- English Civil War (1642–1649): Conflict between King Charles I and Parliament over taxation and governance.
- Commonwealth Period (1649–1660): Oliver Cromwell led England as a republic.
- Glorious Revolution (1688):
- William III and Mary II replaced James II.
- The English Bill of Rights (1689) established a constitutional monarchy.
Economic and Social Changes: Mercantilism
- Jean-Baptiste Colbert's mercantilist policies made France the wealthiest nation.
- Key mercantilist principles:
- Increased exports, reduced imports.
- Government-controlled industries.
- Colonies provided resources for European markets.
The 18th Century: Enlightenment, Power Struggles, and Shifting Alliances
The Rise of Prussia and Austria
- Prussia and Austria fought for dominance in German-speaking lands.
- Frederick the Great expanded Prussia through the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748).
- Seven Years' War (1756–1763):
- Prussia and Britain vs. Austria, France, and Russia.
- Britain emerged as the dominant global colonial power.
The Enlightenment and Its Political Influence
| Thinker | Ideas | Impact |
|---|---|---|
| John Locke | Natural rights (life, liberty, property) | Inspired revolutions |
| Montesquieu | Separation of powers | Influenced constitutional design |
| Voltaire | Religious tolerance | Criticized absolutism |
- The Enlightenment challenged divine-right monarchy, inspiring movements like the American and French Revolutions.
Decline of Poland and the Ottoman Empire
- Poland, lacking a strong central government, was partitioned (1772, 1793, 1795) by Prussia, Austria, and Russia.
- The Ottoman Empire weakened, losing ground in Eastern Europe.
The Early Modern period reshaped Europe's religious, political, and economic landscapes. The Protestant Reformation permanently divided Christianity, leading to wars and new national identities. The rise of centralized monarchies, particularly absolutist France and constitutional England, defined government structures. Wars such as the Thirty Years' War and the Seven Years' War reshaped European power dynamics. The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment encouraged critical thinking and innovation, paving the way for democratic revolutions and industrialization. By 1789, Europe was on the verge of the French Revolution, marking the dawn of the modern era.
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