Theory Of Production and Cost

Labour is defined as any exertion of mind or body to get some reward. This definition encompasses the concept that labor involves putting in effort, whether physical or mental, with the expectation of receiving some form of compensation or reward in return. It recognizes that labor is not simply any work done without remuneration, but rather a purposeful and intentional act aimed at achieving a desired outcome or benefit.

Opportunity cost refers to the value of the next best alternative that is forgone when making a decision. It represents the cost of choosing one option over another. In this context, the cost of one thing in terms of the alternative given up is referred to as opportunity cost.

In the long run, all inputs are variable because in the long run, a firm can adjust all of its inputs, including labor, capital, and technology. This means that the firm can change the quantities of all inputs it uses to produce goods or services. In the long run, there are no fixed inputs that cannot be adjusted. Therefore, the correct answer is that all inputs are variable.

The cost of raw materials is considered a variable cost because it varies with the level of production. As production increases, the cost of raw materials also increases, and vice versa. In contrast, the cost of equipment, interest payment on past borrowings, and payment of rent on a building are considered fixed costs because they do not change with the level of production in the short run.

Tilling of soil is considered production in Economics because it involves the transformation of raw materials (the soil) into a final product (prepared soil for farming). This process adds value to the raw material and contributes to the production of goods or services. Singing a song before friends, preventing a child from falling into a manhole, and painting a picture for pleasure do not involve the creation of goods or services for the purpose of economic production.

The total output when 2 hours of labour are employed is 180. This can be determined by looking at the table provided. When 1 hour of labour is employed, the total output is 100. When 2 hours of labour are employed, the marginal product decreases to 80. Therefore, the total output when 2 hours of labour are employed is the sum of the total output from 1 hour of labour (100) and the marginal product from the second hour of labour (80), which equals 180.

The marginal cost of the sixth unit of output can be calculated by finding the difference in total cost between producing five units and six units. In this case, the total cost of producing five units is Rs.540 and the total cost of producing six units is Rs.610. The difference between these two costs is Rs.70. Therefore, the marginal cost of the sixth unit of output is Rs.70.

In the third stage of production, the marginal product curve lies completely below the average product curve. This means that the additional output produced by each additional unit of input is decreasing, and it is lower than the average output per unit of input. This indicates diminishing marginal returns, where the increase in total product is becoming smaller as more units of input are added.

In the short run, there is at least one fixed factor of production, meaning that there is at least one input that cannot be easily changed or adjusted. This could be a fixed amount of capital or a fixed amount of land, for example. Additionally, in the short run, firms are not able to easily enter or exit the industry. This means that the number of firms in the industry remains constant, and new firms cannot enter to compete or existing firms cannot exit to reduce competition.

The correct answer is "All of the above" because an entrepreneur is responsible for initiating a business enterprise by identifying opportunities and creating a new venture. They also bear the risk associated with the business, taking on financial and personal risks. Additionally, entrepreneurs are known for their ability to innovate, bringing new ideas and solutions to the market. Therefore, all three options are valid functions of an entrepreneur.

The best definition of the production function is the relationship between the quantities of inputs needed to produce a given level of output. This means that the production function shows how much of each input, such as labor or capital, is required to produce a certain amount of output. It helps to determine the most efficient combination of inputs to achieve a desired level of production.

The correct answer states that Total Fixed Cost (TFC) is equal to Total Cost (TC) minus Total Variable Cost (TVC). This means that the fixed costs of a firm, which do not change with the level of production, can be calculated by subtracting the variable costs from the total costs.

In the short run, at least one input is fixed, meaning that there is at least one factor of production that cannot be changed. This could be a fixed amount of capital, such as a building or equipment, or a fixed amount of labor, such as a contracted number of workers. The duration of the short run is not specified in the question, but it is best described as lasting as long as at least one input is fixed.

In the short run, variable costs are those that change with the level of production. Wages paid to the factory labor is a variable cost because it varies depending on the number of workers employed. As production increases, more labor is required, resulting in higher wages. Conversely, if production decreases, fewer workers are needed, leading to lower wages. Therefore, wages paid to the factory labor can be considered a variable cost in the short run.

Marginal cost is the additional cost incurred when producing one additional unit of output. It measures the rate at which the total cost changes as output changes. Therefore, the correct answer is "The change in total cost due to a one unit change in output."

Total cost is obtained by adding up the fixed cost and total variable cost. This is because fixed costs are costs that do not change with the level of output, such as rent or salaries, while variable costs are costs that do change with the level of output, such as raw materials or labor. By adding these two costs together, we can calculate the total cost of production.

The concept of marginal cost is closely related to variable cost because marginal cost refers to the additional cost incurred when producing one more unit of a product or service. Variable costs are expenses that change in direct proportion to the level of production, such as raw materials or labor costs. Therefore, as production increases, variable costs also increase, resulting in a higher marginal cost. This relationship between marginal cost and variable cost is essential for businesses to determine the most efficient level of production and make informed decisions regarding pricing and resource allocation.

The long run average cost curve is also known as the planning curve because it represents the average cost of production when all inputs can be adjusted in the long run. This curve shows the lowest average cost at which a firm can produce a given level of output when it has the flexibility to change its scale of production. Therefore, it is often used by firms to plan their production levels and make decisions regarding the optimal scale of operation.

The correct statement is "Land does not yield any result unless human efforts are employed." This means that land alone cannot produce any output or yield without the intervention of human labor. It emphasizes the importance of human involvement in utilizing and developing land for productive purposes.

The marginal product of the third unit of input can be calculated by finding the difference between the total output of the third unit and the total output of the second unit. In this case, the total output of the third unit is 450 and the total output of the second unit is 350. Therefore, the marginal product of the third unit is 450 - 350 = 100.

If the marginal product of labour is below the average product of labour, it means that each additional unit of labour is contributing less to the total output compared to the average. This implies that the average product of labour is decreasing because the additional units of labour are not as productive as the previous ones.

The statement "The average product is at its maximum when marginal product is equal to average product" is correct. This is because the average product is calculated by dividing the total product by the quantity of input used, while the marginal product is the additional output produced by using one additional unit of input. When the marginal product is equal to the average product, it means that each additional unit of input is contributing the same amount of output as the average. This indicates that the resources are being used efficiently and the average product is maximized.

The marginal product of a variable input refers to the additional output that is obtained from increasing the quantity of the variable input by one unit. It measures the change in total product resulting from a small change in the variable input. This concept helps to understand the productivity of each additional unit of input and is an important factor in determining optimal production levels.

In the short run, at least one of the firm's input levels is fixed. This means that the firm cannot adjust or change all of its inputs in the short run. It is limited by the fixed input level, which could be a fixed amount of labor, capital, or any other input. This constraint on input adjustment in the short run affects the firm's decision-making process and its ability to optimize its production and cost efficiency. In contrast, in the long run, all inputs are variable, allowing the firm to adjust and optimize its input levels to achieve the most efficient production process.

The correct answer is AFC = ATC - AVC. This statement is true because the average total cost (ATC) is equal to the sum of the average fixed cost (AFC) and the average variable cost (AVC). Therefore, rearranging the equation, we can say that AFC is equal to ATC minus AVC.

Variable cost is the cost that increases continuously with the increase in production. This cost is directly proportional to the level of production, meaning that as production increases, the variable cost also increases. Variable costs include expenses such as raw materials, direct labor, and utilities, which vary depending on the volume of production. In contrast, fixed costs remain constant regardless of the level of production. Therefore, the correct answer is variable cost.

When marginal costs are below average total costs, it means that the additional cost of producing one more unit is less than the average cost of all units produced so far. This suggests that the average total costs are falling. As more units are produced, the average cost per unit decreases, indicating efficiency in production and lower overall costs.

When a small factory expands its scale of operations in the long run, it is likely to experience economies of scale. This means that as the factory grows, it can benefit from lower average costs of production. This is because the fixed costs of the factory can be spread over a larger output, leading to increased efficiency and productivity. Additionally, the factory can take advantage of bulk purchasing, specialized machinery, and increased bargaining power with suppliers. All of these factors contribute to cost savings and improved profitability for the expanding factory.

The average product of the first three hours of labor can be calculated by taking the total output (240) and dividing it by the number of hours (3). This gives us an average product of 80.

The average fixed cost curve is never 'U' shaped because it represents the average fixed cost per unit of output. Fixed costs do not change with the level of output, so the average fixed cost curve will continuously decrease as output increases. This is because the fixed costs are spread over a larger number of units, resulting in a lower average fixed cost per unit. Therefore, the average fixed cost curve is always downward sloping and never 'U' shaped.

The payment of wages by the firm is an example of an explicit cost. Explicit costs are the actual out-of-pocket expenses incurred by a firm in producing goods or services. In this case, the firm is directly paying wages to its employees, which is a clear and tangible cost that can be easily identified and measured.

The average product of labor is maximized when the marginal product of labor equals the average product of labor. This means that each additional unit of labor is contributing the same amount of output as the average worker. If the marginal product is greater than the average product, adding more labor will increase the average product. Conversely, if the marginal product is less than the average product, adding more labor will decrease the average product. Therefore, when the marginal product equals the average product, the average product is maximized.

Land is a natural resource and is not produced by human beings. It is a gift of nature and has been present since the beginning of time. Therefore, the statement "It is produced by our forefathers" is not a characteristic of land.

The laws of production refer to the principles that govern the relationship between inputs and outputs in the production process. Returns to scale, the law of diminishing returns to a factor, and the law of variable proportions are all concepts that fall under the laws of production. However, the least cost combination of factors is not considered a law of production. It is a concept related to cost minimization, where producers aim to find the combination of inputs that produces a given level of output at the lowest cost possible.

The average product is calculated by dividing the total product by the variable input. This measure helps to determine the average output produced by each unit of the variable input. By dividing the total product by the variable input, we can assess the efficiency and productivity of the input in relation to the output generated.

The field that has been cleared of trees and in which the crop is planted is not a variable factor in the production of wheat. Once the field has been cleared and prepared for planting, it remains constant throughout the production process. The other factors mentioned - seed and fertilizer, tractor, and the number of hours spent by the farmer - are all variable factors that can be adjusted and have an impact on the production of wheat.

Diminishing returns occur when units of a variable input are added to a fixed input and marginal product falls. This means that as more units of the variable input are added, the additional output produced by each additional unit decreases. This is because the fixed input, such as machinery or land, has a limited capacity to efficiently utilize the variable input. As a result, the overall productivity of the variable input decreases, leading to diminishing returns.

In the short run, the increase in output leads to an increase in variable costs only. This means that the cost of producing each additional unit of output increases. Fixed costs remain constant in the short run, so they do not contribute to the increase in total cost. The increase in variable costs can be attributed to factors such as the need for additional labor, raw materials, or energy to produce the higher level of output.

The average total cost can be calculated by adding the fixed costs and the variable costs, and then dividing by the number of units of output. In this case, the fixed costs are Rs.400 and the variable costs at 5 units of output are Rs.1000. So, the total costs would be Rs.400 + Rs.1000 = Rs.1400. Since we are calculating the average total cost at 5 units of output, we divide the total costs by 5, which gives us Rs.1400/5 = Rs.280. Therefore, the correct answer is Rs.280.

The given production process exhibits diminishing marginal product of labor because as the number of workers increases from 1 to 2, the output increases by 17 units. However, when the number of workers increases from 2 to 3, the output only increases by 10 units. This indicates that each additional worker is adding less and less to the overall output, which is a characteristic of diminishing marginal product of labor.

The law of diminishing marginal returns states that as more units of a variable input are added to a fixed input, the marginal return (additional output) will eventually diminish. This means that initially, adding more units of the variable input will lead to an increase in output, but at a certain point, the increase in output will start to decrease. This occurs because the fixed input becomes a limiting factor and cannot efficiently utilize the additional variable input. Therefore, the correct answer is "Eventually diminish."

The correct answer is "Is the average fixed cost". The difference between average total cost and average variable cost represents the average fixed cost. This is because average total cost includes both fixed and variable costs, while average variable cost only includes the variable costs. Therefore, the difference between the two averages will give us the average fixed cost.

The correct answer is "Capital refers to the produced means of production." This means that capital is the result of human effort and is used to produce goods and services. It is different from land, which is not produced by man's efforts, and is not a result of savings, as savings refer to money or resources set aside for future use. The supply of land is also not constant, as it can be affected by factors such as urbanization and natural disasters.

The law of diminishing returns states that as one input is increased while keeping other inputs constant, the marginal output will eventually decrease. This law applies to the short run because in the short run, at least one input is fixed and cannot be changed. As a result, increasing the variable input will eventually lead to diminishing returns. However, in the long run, all inputs can be adjusted, allowing for more flexibility and the potential to avoid diminishing returns. Therefore, the law of diminishing returns applies to the short run, but not the long run.

The change in the total product resulting from a change in a variable input is known as the marginal product. Marginal product measures the additional output produced by adding one more unit of a variable input, while keeping all other inputs constant. It helps in determining the efficiency and productivity of the variable input in relation to the overall output.

The correct answer is that the MC curve intersects the ATC curve at minimum ATC. This means that at the point where the marginal cost (MC) and average total cost (ATC) curves intersect, the ATC is at its lowest point. This is because the MC represents the additional cost of producing one more unit, and when it intersects with the ATC curve at its minimum, it indicates that the average cost of producing each unit is at its lowest point.

The correct answer is "Interest that could have been earned on retained earnings used by the firm to finance expansion." This is an example of an implicit cost because it represents the opportunity cost of using retained earnings for expansion instead of investing them to earn interest. Implicit costs are not explicit out-of-pocket expenses, but rather the value of resources that could have been used in an alternative way. In this case, the firm is forgoing potential interest income by using the retained earnings for expansion.

The correct answer is "The services of a doctor are considered production." This statement is true because the services provided by a doctor involve the production of healthcare, which is considered an economic output. Doctors provide valuable services that contribute to the well-being of individuals and society as a whole. Their expertise and skills are utilized in diagnosing and treating patients, thus creating a tangible economic value.

The correct answer is 50,90,120,140. This sequence exhibits diminishing marginal returns because the total product increases at a decreasing rate as more units of the variable input are added. Initially, adding one unit of the variable input increases the total product by 40 (from 50 to 90), then by 30 (from 90 to 120), and finally by 20 (from 120 to 140). This shows that each additional unit of the variable input contributes less and less to the total product, indicating diminishing marginal returns.