Patho Chapter 5

Metastasis refers to the spread of malignant cells from the original site of the tumor to other distant sites in the body through the blood or lymphatic system. It is a complex process involving the invasion of nearby tissues, entry into the bloodstream or lymphatic vessels, and establishment of new tumors in distant organs or tissues. This process is a hallmark of cancer and is responsible for the majority of cancer-related deaths.

A benign neoplasm originating from adipose tissue is called a lipoma. Lipomas are noncancerous tumors that develop from fat cells. They usually feel soft and are movable under the skin. Adenoma is a benign tumor that arises from glandular tissue, fibrosarcoma is a malignant tumor of fibrous tissue, and adenocarcinoma is a malignant tumor that originates in glandular tissue.

Ovarian cancer has a poor prognosis because specific signs rarely appear until after secondary tumors develop. This means that the cancer is often not detected until it has already spread to other parts of the body, making it more difficult to treat effectively. Early detection is crucial for successful treatment, but the lack of specific signs makes it challenging to diagnose ovarian cancer in its early stages.

Gamma rays delivered by a cobalt machine would be an external source of ionizing radiation. A cobalt machine is a medical device that emits gamma rays, which are a type of electromagnetic radiation. These gamma rays have high energy and can penetrate through the body, causing ionization of atoms and potentially damaging cells and tissues. This external source of radiation is commonly used in radiation therapy to treat cancer by targeting and destroying cancer cells.

A benign tumor is characterized by cells that appear relatively normal. Unlike malignant tumors, benign tumors do not exhibit significant abnormalities in cell structure or function. This means that the cells in a benign tumor closely resemble healthy cells and maintain their normal appearance. This is one of the key features that differentiate benign tumors from malignant tumors, which often display abnormal and undifferentiated cells.

Radiation therapy primarily targets rapidly dividing cells. This is because rapidly dividing cells are more susceptible to the damaging effects of radiation compared to non-dividing cells. Radiation damages the DNA of these cells, preventing them from dividing and ultimately leading to their death. While radiation therapy may also affect other cells in the tumor, it is most effective against rapidly dividing cells due to their higher sensitivity to radiation.

Bone marrow depression is a common dose-limiting factor for chemotherapy. Chemotherapy drugs can cause damage to the bone marrow, which is responsible for producing blood cells. This can lead to a decrease in the production of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, resulting in anemia, increased risk of infection, and bleeding problems. Limiting the dose of chemotherapy is necessary to prevent severe bone marrow suppression and its associated complications.

Malignant neoplasms arising from connective tissue cells are called sarcomas. Unlike carcinomas, which originate from epithelial cells, sarcomas specifically develop from cells of the connective tissue. Melanomas are malignant neoplasms arising from melanocytes, while fibromas are benign tumors composed of fibrous connective tissue. Therefore, the correct answer in this case is sarcomas.

Staging a malignant tumor at the time of diagnosis is important to determine the best treatment and prognosis for the patient. By staging the tumor, healthcare professionals can assess the extent of the cancer, including its size, location, and whether it has spread to nearby lymph nodes or other parts of the body. This information helps in developing an appropriate treatment plan, such as surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of these. Additionally, staging provides valuable insights into the prognosis, allowing healthcare providers to estimate the likely course of the disease and potential outcomes for the patient.

The development of neutropenia during chemotherapy for cancer means that the patient is at high risk for infection. Neutropenia is a condition characterized by a low level of neutrophils, which are a type of white blood cell responsible for fighting off infections. When the neutrophil count is low, the body's ability to defend against bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens is compromised, making the patient more susceptible to infections. Therefore, it is important to closely monitor and manage neutropenia in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy to prevent potentially serious infections.

During chemotherapy and radiation treatments, the drugs and radiation specifically target rapidly dividing cells, as these are more susceptible to damage. Epithelial cells, which line the surfaces of organs and tissues, are known for their high rate of division and regeneration. Therefore, they are particularly vulnerable to the effects of these treatments. This can lead to side effects such as hair loss, mouth sores, and gastrointestinal issues, as these are areas with a high concentration of epithelial cells.

A sudden development of fever, nausea, and diarrhea is not typically associated with cancer. These symptoms are more commonly related to infections or gastrointestinal issues. Persistent, unusual bleeding, a change in bowel habits, and a change in shape, color, or surface of a skin lesion can be warning signs of possible cancer and should be evaluated by a healthcare professional.

Chemotherapy and radiation therapy are commonly used treatments for cancer, but they can have adverse effects on the body. Thrombocytopenia refers to a decrease in platelet count, which can lead to an increased risk of bleeding and bruising. Leukopenia is a decrease in white blood cell count, which weakens the immune system and makes the body more susceptible to infections. These two adverse effects are critical because they can have significant impacts on a patient's overall health and well-being.

Anti-angiogenesis drugs work by reducing the blood flow and nutrient supply to tumor cells. Angiogenesis is the process of forming new blood vessels, which is crucial for tumor growth and metastasis. These drugs inhibit the formation of new blood vessels, thereby starving the tumor cells of essential nutrients and oxygen. This leads to the inhibition of tumor growth and can potentially shrink the tumor. By targeting the blood vessels that supply the tumor, anti-angiogenesis drugs aim to limit the tumor's access to nutrients and hinder its ability to proliferate.

The grading of newly diagnosed malignant tumors is based on the degree of differentiation of the cells. This refers to how similar the cancer cells are to normal cells in terms of their appearance and function. A higher grade indicates that the cancer cells are less differentiated and more aggressive, while a lower grade suggests that the cancer cells are more similar to normal cells and less aggressive. Grading helps in determining the prognosis and guiding treatment decisions for patients with malignant tumors.

An expanding tumor mass can cause obstruction of a tube or duct in the body, leading to the common local effect of 1. This can occur when the tumor grows in a way that blocks the normal flow of fluids or substances through a tube or duct, causing symptoms related to the specific area affected. Additionally, as the tumor mass grows, it can outgrow its blood supply, leading to inadequate oxygen and nutrient delivery to the tumor cells. This can result in cell necrosis and ulceration, which are the common local effects of 3.

Chemotherapy drugs can cause inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to nausea and vomiting. Additionally, these drugs can stimulate the emetic center in the brain, which triggers the vomiting reflex. Therefore, both options 1 and 2 provide a plausible explanation for why vomiting frequently follows a chemotherapy treatment. The other options, 3 and 4, are not relevant to the physiological reasons behind chemotherapy-induced vomiting.

Malignant brain tumors have the ability to spread to other parts of the central nervous system (CNS). This means that the tumor cells can invade and infiltrate surrounding brain tissue, potentially causing damage and affecting the functioning of different areas of the CNS. Unlike some other types of cancer, malignant brain tumors do not typically metastasize to other parts of the body, such as the lungs and bones. Instead, their primary mode of spread is within the CNS itself.

Glucocorticoids are often prescribed during a course of chemotherapy and radiation because they can help reduce inflammation around the tumor. Inflammation can contribute to the growth and spread of cancer cells, so by reducing inflammation, glucocorticoids can potentially help in controlling the tumor and its effects. This can also help in managing symptoms such as pain and swelling caused by the tumor. However, it is important to note that glucocorticoids do not directly potentiate the effect of chemotherapy or stimulate the immune system.

The correct answer is an irreversible change in the cell DNA. Carcinogenesis, the process of cancer development, typically starts with an irreversible alteration in the DNA of a cell. This change can be caused by various factors such as exposure to carcinogens, radiation, or genetic mutations. Once the DNA is damaged, it can lead to the uncontrolled growth and division of cells, ultimately resulting in the formation of a tumor and the progression of cancer.

Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) is a marker commonly associated with colon cancer. CEA is a protein that is normally produced during fetal development, but its levels decrease after birth. However, in some cases of colon cancer, CEA levels become elevated. Therefore, the presence of CEA can be used as a marker for the presence of colon cancer.

Paraneoplastic syndrome refers to the effects caused by substances, such as hormones, that are secreted by tumor cells. These substances can have a variety of effects on the body, including neurological, hormonal, and hematological abnormalities. This syndrome is not directly caused by the tumor itself or its metastasis, but rather by the substances produced by the tumor cells.

Chemotherapy usually involves a combination of drugs in order to reduce the adverse effects and be effective in more phases of the cell cycle. Using a combination of drugs helps to minimize the side effects of chemotherapy by allowing lower doses of each drug to be used. Additionally, different drugs target different phases of the cell cycle, so using a combination increases the likelihood of killing cancer cells in various stages of growth.