Neurological Disorders (Patho)

The explanation for the given correct answer is that the cerebrum, specifically the cerebral cortex, is responsible for various functions such as language, perception, and movement. The cerebral cortex is divided into different areas, each associated with a specific function. This organization allows for specialized processing and coordination of different tasks within the brain. Therefore, it is true that each area of the cerebral cortex is associated with a different function.

When working with a patient with dementia, it is important to use simple commands because complex instructions may be difficult for them to understand and follow. A firm but calm voice is necessary to provide clear communication and maintain a sense of reassurance. Mobility and strengthening activities can help improve the patient's physical abilities and maintain their independence. Balance activities are also important as individuals with dementia may be prone to falls. Therefore, all these interventions are appropriate indications when working with a patient with dementia.

The given statement is true. Autism Spectrum Disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by a range of symptoms including poor eye contact, short attention span, delayed speech, sensitivity to light, touch, and sound, as well as repetitive behaviors like slapping or head-banging. Individuals with autism may also have difficulty interpreting facial expressions and body language.

The statement is true because the treatment of Parkinson's disease does indeed involve the use of L-dopa, which is a precursor of dopamine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is deficient in Parkinson's patients. L-dopa is able to cross the blood-brain barrier, allowing it to reach the brain and be converted into dopamine. Additionally, anticholinergic medications are also used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease to help control some of the symptoms. Therefore, the statement is correct.

Multiple Sclerosis is indeed an autoimmune, chronic, demyelinating neurological disorder of the CNS. This means that the immune system mistakenly attacks the protective covering of nerve fibers in the central nervous system, leading to communication problems between the brain and the rest of the body. The chronic nature of the disease means that it is a long-lasting condition, and the demyelination refers to the loss of the protective myelin sheath around nerve fibers. Therefore, the statement "Multiple Sclerosis is an autoimmune, chronic, demyelinating neurological disorder of the CNS" is true.

Damage to peripheral nerves can indeed be reversible or irreversible. This means that in some cases, the nerves can heal and function normally again, while in other cases, the damage may be permanent and the nerves may not be able to fully recover. This is dependent on various factors such as the severity and type of nerve damage, as well as the individual's overall health and ability to regenerate nerves.

The statement is true because surgical decompression is indeed the primary treatment for Arnold-Chiari malformation. This condition involves the displacement of the cerebellar tonsils into the spinal canal, causing compression and disruption of cerebrospinal fluid flow. Surgery aims to relieve this compression and restore normal fluid flow. Physical therapy may also be included in the treatment plan to address balance and coordination disorders that can occur due to cerebellar involvement. Therefore, the statement is accurate.

Guillain Barre Syndrome is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the peripheral nerves, leading to the breakdown of the myelin sheath and axons. It is often triggered by a previous infection, such as the flu, or a traumatic event. This condition can cause weakness, numbness, and tingling in the limbs, and can progress to muscle weakness or paralysis. Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures, Ischemic CVA refers to a stroke caused by a blockage in the blood vessels supplying the brain, and Petit Mal is a type of seizure seen in individuals with epilepsy.

Dopamine, along with a balance of acetylcholine, is responsible for controlling movement. It primarily initiates and controls movements, while also being associated with limiting involuntary movements. Therefore, the statement that dopamine with a balance of acetylcholine controls movement is true.

The limbic system is a complex network of brain structures that plays a crucial role in regulating emotions and storing long-term memories. It includes the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and other interconnected regions. The amygdala is responsible for processing emotions, while the hippocampus is involved in forming and retrieving memories. Therefore, it is accurate to say that the limbic system is associated with emotions and long-term memory.

Radiculopathy is the correct answer because it refers to the compression or irritation of a nerve root as it exits the intervertebral foramen. This can cause symptoms such as pain, numbness, and weakness along the path of the affected nerve. Neurapraxia, axonotmesis, and neurotmesis are not specific to nerve root compression and refer to different types or degrees of nerve injury.

Neurapraxia is the correct answer because it refers to a temporary nerve injury caused by pressure without any structural changes. This can result in temporary paralysis but does not involve any damage to the nerve fibers themselves.

Neurotmesis refers to the most severe form of nerve injury, where there is complete disruption of the axon and the surrounding neural sheath. This type of injury leads to permanent paralysis because the axon is completely severed and cannot regenerate. Axonotmesis, on the other hand, involves damage to the axon but the neural sheath remains intact, allowing for potential regeneration. Neurapraxia is the mildest form of nerve injury, where there is temporary dysfunction but no structural damage to the axon. Brodmann's area, unrelated to nerve injury, refers to a map of the human cerebral cortex based on histological analysis.

Axonotmesis is the correct answer because it refers to the degeneration of a neuronal axon, which may or may not grow back. In this condition, the neural sheath remains intact, but temporary or permanent damage may occur. This means that the axon is injured but the surrounding protective covering is still intact. This can result in temporary or permanent functional loss, depending on the severity of the damage.

Clonus refers to the rapid, intermittent contraction of a muscle in response to a sudden stretch, which commonly occurs in upper motor neuron (UMN) lesions. It is a characteristic symptom of UMN dysfunction, often seen in conditions such as spinal cord injuries, stroke, or multiple sclerosis. Clonus is caused by an abnormal reflex loop in the spinal cord, leading to repetitive muscle contractions. It can be clinically tested by eliciting a sustained stretch to a muscle and observing the rhythmic contractions that follow.

When the drainage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is compromised, it leads to a condition called hydrocephalus, where there is an increased pressure on the brain. To reduce this pressure, a shunt is used. A shunt is a device that helps in diverting the excess CSF from the brain's ventricles to another body cavity, usually the abdominal cavity. This allows the CSF to be reabsorbed and helps in relieving the pressure on the brain.

Neuropathy or polyneuropathy is a condition characterized by decreased sensation, pain, and weakness. It can be debilitating and may lead to skin breakdown. The treatment for this condition includes the use of orthotics, wound care, and therapeutic exercises. Additionally, neuropathy is usually more severe in the upper extremities compared to the lower extremities.

The signs and symptoms of Guillain Barre Syndrome/ Acute Inflammatory Demyelinating Neuropathy include weakness that is usually bilateral and weakest around three weeks after onset, tingling in the skin that starts in the lower extremities, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) with abnormally high levels of protein.

Chiari malformations are a group of structural defects in the cerebellum, the part of the brain responsible for coordination and balance. These malformations can cause a blockage in the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and result in the cerebellum protruding into the spinal canal through the foramen magnum, the opening at the base of the skull. This abnormal positioning of the cerebellum can exert pressure on the spinal cord, leading to various neurological symptoms.

The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) serves multiple functions in the body. It acts as a protective cushion for the brain and spinal cord, absorbing shocks and preventing damage. It also transports hormones to the nervous system, aiding in their communication and regulation. Additionally, CSF is constantly being recycled through absorption into the venous system, ensuring that the total amount of CSF is renewed several times a day.

Parkinson's disease is a chronic and progressive disease that primarily affects the basal ganglia, particularly the substantia nigra. The death of cells in the substantia nigra leads to a decrease in dopamine production. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in movement control and coordination. The basal ganglia are a group of structures in the brain that are involved in motor control. Dysfunction in the basal ganglia due to the loss of dopamine-producing cells leads to the characteristic motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia.

Huntington's disease is a progressive hereditary degenerative disorder that typically starts in a person's 30s or 40s and progresses slowly over time. It is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. Common symptoms include movement disorders, hallucinations, sleep disturbances, and changes in behavior. Other symptoms may include slurred speech, dementia, and seizures. The disease often leads to death around the age of 70.

The Vestibular system is responsible for maintaining the body's balance and equilibrium. It helps in determining the position of the body in relation to gravity, allowing us to stay upright and maintain our posture. It also plays a role in coordinating eye movements and adjusting the position of the eyes in relation to the environment, which is important for clear vision and visual tracking. Additionally, the Vestibular system helps in keeping the body in a stable position by providing feedback to the muscles and joints to make necessary adjustments for balance.

The correct answer is "antiepileptic." This term refers to medications that are used to treat seizures. These medications work by suppressing abnormal electrical activity in the brain, which helps to prevent seizures from occurring. Other treatment options mentioned in the question, such as vagus nerve stimulation, brain surgery, and the ketogenic diet, may also be used in certain cases, but antiepileptic medications are a common and effective treatment option for seizures.

During fetal development, the neural tube forms from the ectoderm at around 18 days of gestation. The ectoderm is one of the three primary germ layers in the early embryo, and it gives rise to various structures including the skin, nervous system, and sensory organs. The neural tube is a crucial structure that eventually develops into the brain and spinal cord. It starts as an open-ended structure and gradually closes around 28 days of gestation. This closure marks the beginning of brain development.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive and degenerative disease that affects both upper motor neurons (UMN) and lower motor neurons (LMN). It primarily affects the lateral aspect of the motor neurons in the spinal cord and brain. The sensory system remains intact in ALS, meaning that it does not typically affect the sensory nerves. ALS can affect both men and women, usually between the ages of 40 and 60. One of the contributing factors to the destruction of neurons in ALS is the high concentration of glutamate in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

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Patients with Alzheimer's disease experience memory loss, both for recent events and distant memories. They also suffer from a loss of ability to learn new things. Additionally, Alzheimer's can cause personality changes, which may include becoming aggressive. The disease progresses through seven stages, and currently, there is no cure for Alzheimer's disease.

The correct answer is interleukin. Interleukins are signaling molecules that regulate the immune response. Defects in the interleukin 2 and 7 alpha genes can reduce the ability of T cells to switch off the immune response attack on myelin in the central nervous system. This leads to the formation of scar tissue (sclerosis) from demyelinated nerves, causing plaque buildup in the spinal cord and brain, which disrupts normal electrical impulses.

The term "countrecoup" refers to a secondary head injury that occurs on the opposite side of the initial impact. In this scenario, the person sustained a head injury (coup injury) due to a motor vehicle accident, and the countrecoup injury is the additional damage that occurred on the opposite side of the brain. The answer suggests that this countrecoup injury, along with the coup injury, may lead to conditions such as epidural or subdural hematoma, which increase pressure in the brain. To relieve this pressure and prevent ischemia (lack of blood flow) to the brain, a craniotomy may be necessary.

Patients with Alzheimer's disease have large numbers of tangles of neurofibrils. These neurofibrils are abnormal structures formed inside the nerve cells, consisting of twisted protein fibers. The accumulation of plaques and amyloid protein tissue further adds to the disruption of normal nerve impulse transmission. This combination of neurofibril tangles and protein accumulation is a characteristic feature of Alzheimer's disease.