Tumor Markers Quiz

Mutations and translocations are indeed examples of genetic changes. Mutations refer to changes in the DNA sequence, which can result in altered proteins or genetic traits. Translocations, on the other hand, involve the rearrangement of genetic material between two non-homologous chromosomes. Both of these processes can lead to variations in the genetic information, potentially resulting in different phenotypic traits or diseases. Therefore, the statement is correct.

One of the roles of tumor markers is to monitor for disease recurrence or progression. Tumor markers are substances that can be found in the blood, urine, or tissues of some patients with cancer. They are often used to help detect, diagnose, and monitor the response to treatment of certain types of cancer. Monitoring for disease recurrence or progression is a widely used function of tumor markers, as it helps healthcare professionals track the progress of the disease and make informed decisions about further treatment options.

The following are the characteristics of an ideal tumor marker:

Specificity for a single type of cancer
High sensitivity and specificity for cancerous growth
Correlation of marker level with tumor size
Homogeneous (i.e., minimal post-translational modifications)
Short half-life in circulation

Blood tests have become a fundamental tool in the diagnosis of cancer, complementing traditional methods such as physical examinations, biopsies, and imaging techniques like CT scans. These tests are critical because they can detect certain biomarkers—substances in the blood that may indicate the presence of cancer.

Prolactin is a hormone that is produced by the pituitary gland and plays a crucial role in lactation and reproductive function. It is considered as a tumor marker because elevated levels of prolactin in the blood can indicate the presence of a prolactinoma, which is a type of pituitary tumor. Therefore, the correct answer is hormone.

A positive result for Her-2/neu using immunohistochemistry would indicate the presence of the Her-2/neu protein in the tissue sample being tested. This could suggest that the patient has an overexpression of the Her-2/neu gene, which is associated with more aggressive forms of breast cancer. Option 1 is therefore indicative of a positive result because it suggests the presence of the protein.

The correct answer is Breast because CA 15-3 is a tumor marker commonly used to monitor breast cancer. It is a blood test that measures the level of a protein called CA 15-3, which is often elevated in breast cancer patients. This marker is particularly useful for tracking the progression of the disease and monitoring the effectiveness of treatment. While CA 15-3 can also be elevated in other types of cancer, such as ovarian and pancreatic, it is most commonly associated with breast cancer. Therefore, the correct answer is Breast.

Comparative genomic hybridization is a method used to compare differences in DNA copy number between test samples (such as tumors) and reference samples. It involves labeling DNA from both samples with different fluorescent dyes and then hybridizing them to a microarray. The microarray contains probes that represent different regions of the genome. By comparing the intensity of the fluorescent signals, one can determine if there are any gains or losses in DNA copy number in the test sample compared to the reference sample. This technique is commonly used in cancer research to identify genetic alterations associated with tumor development and progression.

Total PSA ranges:
0-4 ng/mL = Low risk of PCA (22% positive)
4-10 ng/mL = diagnostic gray zone (PCA & BPH)
>10 ng/mL = 40-50% with PCA

High sensitivity PSA assays are useful for all of the above purposes because they can detect very low levels of PSA in the blood. This makes them effective for early detection of disease recurrence after prostatectomy, as even a small increase in PSA levels can indicate the presence of cancer cells. Additionally, high sensitivity PSA assays can help differentiate between benign prostatic hypertrophy and prostate cancer, as the latter typically results in higher PSA levels. Lastly, these assays can also aid in distinguishing between aggressive and non-aggressive disease, as aggressive prostate cancer often leads to higher PSA levels.

CEA stands for carcinoembryonic antigen, which is a protein that is commonly found in the blood of smokers and elderly individuals at elevated levels. CEA levels can be used as a marker for certain types of cancers, particularly colorectal cancer. Smoking is known to increase the production of CEA, and as individuals age, their CEA levels naturally tend to rise. Therefore, the elevated levels of CEA in smokers and elderly individuals can be attributed to the effects of smoking and the aging process.

Gene amplification or overexpression refers to an increase in the number of copies or the level of expression of a particular gene. In this case, HER-2/neu is the correct answer because it is known to undergo amplification or overexpression in 30% of patients. This amplification is associated with aggressive disease and shortened survival, indicating that HER-2/neu plays a significant role in the progression and prognosis of the disease.

The correct answer is A and B. Oncofetal antigens are substances that are produced by certain tumors and are also found in the developing fetus. CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen) and AFP (alpha-fetoprotein) are examples of oncofetal antigens. CA-125 is not an oncofetal antigen. Therefore, options A and B are correct as both CEA and AFP are oncofetal antigens.

AFP stands for alpha-fetoprotein, which is a protein produced by the liver of a developing fetus. In pregnant women, elevated levels of AFP can indicate certain liver diseases such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, and GI tumors. Therefore, AFP is a relevant marker to monitor and diagnose liver diseases during pregnancy. CEA, CA 125, and CA 15-3 are not specifically associated with liver diseases in pregnancy, making AFP the correct answer.

All of the above mentioned choices are our learning objectives in studying tumor markers

CEA stands for carcinoembryonic antigen. It is a protein that is normally produced during fetal development, but its production decreases after birth. Elevated levels of CEA can be found in various types of cancer, including breast, pancreatic, gastrointestinal, and lung cancer. Therefore, CEA is a useful tumor marker for detecting and monitoring these types of cancer.

CGH arrays are performed on microchips.

AFP stands for alpha-fetoprotein, which is a protein produced by the liver and yolk sac of a developing fetus. It is normally found in high levels in the blood of a developing fetus, but the levels decrease significantly after birth. Elevated levels of AFP in adults can indicate the presence of certain types of cancer, including germ cell tumors. Therefore, AFP is considered a germ cell tumor marker and is used in diagnosing and monitoring these types of tumors.

Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter and hormone that is produced and released by the adrenal glands. It functions as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter in the body. As a tumor marker, norepinephrine can be used to detect certain types of tumors, particularly neuroendocrine tumors. These tumors can produce excessive amounts of norepinephrine, which can be measured in the blood or urine as a metabolite. Therefore, norepinephrine is an example of a metabolite tumor marker.

Thyroglobulin is considered a normal protein and a tumor marker because it is produced by the thyroid gland and is involved in the production of thyroid hormones. In healthy individuals, thyroglobulin levels are typically low. However, in cases of thyroid cancer, thyroglobulin levels can be elevated, making it a useful marker for detecting and monitoring the disease. Therefore, thyroglobulin is both a normal protein and a tumor marker.