Microbiology Final Exam Quiz - 1

Viral diseases cannot be studied using Koch's postulates because viruses have very specific hosts and cannot be grown in pure culture. Koch's postulates require the ability to isolate and grow the pathogen in pure culture, which is not possible with viruses. Additionally, viruses have a narrow host range, meaning they can only infect specific species or cell types, making it difficult to study their effects in a controlled experimental setting. Therefore, both options "a" and "b" are correct explanations for why viral diseases cannot be studied using Koch's postulates.

The correct order of the stages of infection is as follows:

b. incubation period - This is the period between the initial infection and the appearance of symptoms. The pathogen is multiplying within the body during this stage.

c. prodromal phase - This is the stage where the initial symptoms start to appear. The symptoms may be mild, but they indicate that the infection is progressing.

a. acme period - This is the stage where the infection is at its peak. The symptoms are usually the most severe during this stage.

e. period of decline - In this stage, the symptoms start to lessen, and the infection begins to subside. The body's immune response is effectively fighting off the infection.

d. period of convalescence - This is the final stage where the body is recovering from the infection. The symptoms have disappeared, and the individual is returning to their normal state of health.

A light microscope works by allowing light to pass through the specimen and through the objective lens and ocular, and then into the eye. This allows the observer to see the magnified image of the specimen. The other options mentioned, such as light reflecting off the specimen or light refracting through a layer of oil, are not accurate explanations of how a light microscope works.

Gram staining is a differential staining technique because it differentiates bacteria into two groups: Gram-positive and Gram-negative. This technique involves the application of crystal violet, iodine, alcohol, and safranin to the bacterial cells. Gram-positive bacteria retain the crystal violet stain, appearing purple, while Gram-negative bacteria do not retain the stain and appear pink after counterstaining with safranin. This staining method is widely used in microbiology to identify and classify bacteria based on their cell wall composition.

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The correct answer is gastrointestinal. This suggests that the symptoms mentioned in the question, such as fever, eyes, and muscles, are associated with a gastrointestinal infection or illness.

A common strep throat can be dangerous because it can lead to acute glomerulonephritis and rheumatic fever. Acute glomerulonephritis is a condition where the kidneys become inflamed and can lead to kidney damage. Rheumatic fever is a serious inflammatory condition that can affect the heart, joints, and other organs. Both of these complications can have long-term effects on the individual's health. Antibiotic resistance, mentioned in option d, is not directly related to the danger of strep throat but is a concern in general for the overuse or misuse of antibiotics.

The presence of encapsulated, paired, gram-negative cocci in the discharge from the infant's eye suggests a bacterial infection. Neonatal gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted infection that can be transmitted to a newborn during childbirth. This infection can cause eye infections in newborns, which is consistent with the symptoms described in the scenario. The evidence of hordes of flies in the village may indicate poor hygiene conditions, which could contribute to the spread of the infection. Therefore, neonatal gonorrhea is the most likely explanation based on the given information.

The correct answer is that the cell walls of these organisms are not affected by penicillin. This is because penicillin primarily targets and inhibits the synthesis of peptidoglycan, a component of bacterial cell walls. However, mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of TB, has a unique cell wall structure that is not susceptible to the action of penicillin. Therefore, penicillin is ineffective in treating TB infections.

The term "consumption" is commonly used to refer to tuberculosis because the bacterium responsible for the disease essentially consumes or destroys the body tissues. Tuberculosis infection can lead to the destruction of lung tissue, causing symptoms such as coughing, weight loss, and fatigue. This destruction of body tissues by the bacterium is why tuberculosis is often referred to as consumption.

Older adults are at the highest risk for legionelliosis. Legionelliosis is a respiratory infection caused by the Legionella bacteria, which is commonly found in water sources. As people age, their immune system weakens, making them more susceptible to infections. Additionally, older adults are more likely to have underlying health conditions or weakened respiratory systems, further increasing their vulnerability to the disease. Therefore, the age group at most risk for legionelliosis is old folks.

The correct answer is "the envelope." The envelope is a flexible membrane composed of protein and lipid that surrounds some viruses. It is derived from the host cell's membrane during the viral replication process. The envelope plays a crucial role in the virus's ability to infect host cells by facilitating attachment and entry into the cell. Additionally, the envelope can help the virus evade the host's immune system.

The correct answer is "the genome". The genome refers to the complete set of genetic material present in an organism or virus. In the context of a virus, the genome consists of nucleic acid, which can be either DNA or RNA. The capsid refers to the protein coat that surrounds the genome, providing protection and structure. The envelope, on the other hand, is a lipid membrane that some viruses have, derived from the host cell's membrane. Capsomeres are the individual protein subunits that make up the capsid. However, none of these options specifically represent the genetic material of the virus, which is the genome.

The fungus Candida is known to cause both vaginal yeast infections and thrush of the mouth. These are common infections that occur when there is an overgrowth of Candida in the affected area. Vaginal yeast infections typically result in itching, irritation, and abnormal discharge in women, while thrush of the mouth leads to white patches on the tongue, inner cheeks, and throat. Therefore, the correct answer is "a and b" as both vaginal yeast infections and thrush of the mouth are caused by the fungus Candida.

Pinworm disease, also known as enterobiasis, is caused by a parasitic infection of the intestines. The most common symptom of this disease is itching around the anus, particularly at night. This itching is caused by the female pinworms laying their eggs in the skin around the anus. Itching can lead to discomfort and disturbed sleep. Other symptoms such as pain in the thoracic muscles, difficulty in seeing, headaches, jaundice, and vomiting of blood are not associated with pinworm disease.

The term "fomite" refers to an inanimate object that can carry and transmit infectious agents. It can include things like doorknobs, phones, or clothing. These objects can become contaminated with pathogens and act as a source of infection when touched or used by others. Therefore, the correct answer is "inanimate object," as it accurately describes the role of a fomite in spreading infections.

The term "outbreak" refers to the sudden occurrence of cases of a particular disease in a specific population or area, indicating a higher number of cases than what is normally expected. In this scenario, the local hunter falling ill with a fever after skinning rabbits all weekend suggests a sudden increase in cases of a potential disease. However, without more information, it cannot be determined whether the outbreak is limited to the hunter or if it has spread to others in the community.

The correct answer is bacteria because bacteria are the only microorganisms that have cell walls made of peptidoglycan. Fungus, protozoa, and algae have different types of cell walls, while viruses do not have cell walls at all. Therefore, the presence of cell walls made of peptidoglycan is a characteristic feature of bacteria.

Acid fast staining is a technique that allows for the microscopic detection of mycobacteria. This technique involves staining the bacteria with a combination of a primary stain (such as carbol fuchsin) and a counterstain (such as methylene blue). Mycobacteria have a unique cell wall composition that makes them resistant to the decolorization step in the staining process, allowing them to retain the primary stain. This results in the mycobacteria appearing as bright red or pink rods under a microscope, while other bacteria appear blue or purple. This technique is commonly used to identify and diagnose diseases caused by mycobacteria, such as tuberculosis.

The correct answer is "just a and b". This means that some of the problems associated with the BCG vaccine are that it is not very effective and it can result in a positive skin test. The vaccine may not provide full protection against tuberculosis, and a positive skin test can lead to false positive results, causing unnecessary concern and further testing.

The correct answer suggests that Pancho may have had gonorrhea but was asymptomatic, meaning he did not show any symptoms of the infection. As a result, there would be no way for him to know if he had it without getting tested. This explanation implies that his girlfriend's accusation may have been true, even though Pancho insisted that he did not have anything wrong with him. To confirm whether he had the infection or not, Pancho would need to undergo testing.

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IgG is the major circulating antibody in the body. It is the most abundant immunoglobulin in the bloodstream and is responsible for long-term immunity. IgG antibodies are able to cross the placenta, providing passive immunity to the fetus during pregnancy. They are also involved in opsonization, neutralization of toxins and viruses, and activation of the complement system. IgG is produced in response to both primary and secondary immune responses and plays a crucial role in protecting against bacterial and viral infections.

None of the statements provided are true. Vaccination is not dangerous when done at a young age, it is not the leading cause of autism, and it does not cause individuals to get the disease. These statements are misleading and not supported by scientific evidence. Vaccination is a safe and effective way to prevent the spread of diseases and protect public health.

The correct answer is pandemic. A pandemic refers to a global outbreak of a disease that affects a large number of people across different countries or continents. In the context of HIV/AIDS cutting short the lives of young people worldwide, it is accurate to describe it as a pandemic because the disease has spread extensively and continues to impact individuals globally, rather than being confined to a specific region or population.

The given correct answer states that all of the mentioned rules for writing bacterial names will be followed. This means that the scientific name, which includes the genus and species, will always be used. Genus names will always be capitalized. Bacterial names should be written in italics or underlined. Additionally, after the scientific name is used, abbreviated names of organisms are commonly used. Therefore, all of these rules will be followed when writing bacterial names.

Chemotaxis refers to the ability of a cell to sense and respond to a chemical gradient by moving towards the source of the gradient. This process allows cells to navigate their environment and locate beneficial substances or avoid harmful ones. Therefore, the given statement accurately describes chemotaxis, making the answer "true".

Based on the given information, the graph to the right indicates a specific type of bacterium. Since thermophiles are organisms that thrive in high temperatures, it can be inferred that the bacterium in the graph is a thermophile.

The rancher developing an eschar on his forearm suggests that he has cutaneous anthrax. Cutaneous anthrax is a bacterial infection caused by Bacillus anthracis, commonly found in animals like deer. The infection occurs when the bacteria enters through a cut or abrasion on the skin, leading to the formation of a black, painless sore called an eschar. This is a characteristic symptom of cutaneous anthrax. Tetanus and listeriosis are not associated with eschar formation, and having a tattoo would not explain the development of an eschar.

TB is commonly referred to as consumption because the bacterium responsible for causing TB essentially consumes the body. When a person is infected with TB, the bacterium multiplies and spreads throughout the body, feeding on the nutrients and resources of the host. This consumption of the body's resources leads to the weakening of the infected individual, as most of the energy in the body is consumed by the infection. Therefore, the term "consumption" is used to describe the process by which the bacterium consumes the body's resources during a TB infection.

The treatment of tuberculosis is difficult primarily due to the long time period required for treatment. TB is caused by a slow-growing bacteria that requires a prolonged course of antibiotics to completely eradicate it from the body. Patients are typically required to take multiple drugs for at least six months, and in some cases, up to two years. This long duration of treatment poses challenges in terms of patient adherence and completion of the entire course. Additionally, the drugs used for TB treatment can have serious side effects, which further complicates the treatment process.

Based on the given answer, approximately 30% of the global population is infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This suggests that a significant proportion of people worldwide are affected by this bacterium, which causes tuberculosis. This high percentage highlights the widespread nature of the disease and the need for effective prevention and treatment strategies to combat its impact on public health.

Many grains, peanuts, and hay can become contaminated with fungi, specifically Aspergillus flavus, which produce powerful toxins called aflatoxins. These toxins pose a serious health risk to humans and animals if consumed. Aflatoxins are known to be carcinogenic and can cause liver damage and other health issues. Therefore, it is crucial to monitor and control the presence of Aspergillus flavus in agricultural products to prevent aflatoxin contamination.

The correct answer is "nonexistent" because the statement suggests that there is currently no vaccine available for herpes simplex virus II. The other options, such as being expensive, given in multiple doses, or resulting in a positive skin test, do not correctly describe the vaccine for this virus.

The answer "parasites tend to feed off of their host little by little" makes the most sense because it aligns with the concept of parasites gradually consuming resources from their host without killing it immediately. This behavior allows the parasite to sustain itself for a longer period of time, maximizing its chances of survival. The other options either do not accurately describe the relationship between parasites and hosts or make generalizations that may not apply to all parasites.

Listeriosis is a disease that typically causes mild gastrointestinal infection. However, it can become more serious when it spreads to the skin, causing abscesses. Additionally, it can also lead to intrauterine infection, resulting in miscarriage. Furthermore, listeriosis can cause meningitis and septicemia. Therefore, the correct answer is that listeriosis can be more serious when it causes intrauterine infection leading to miscarriage and when it causes meningitis and septicemia.

The correct answer is "a and c" because supportive treatment is used to manage symptoms and provide relief, while vancomycin is an antibiotic that is effective against staphylococcal pneumonia. Penicillin, on the other hand, is not typically used as a first-line treatment for this type of pneumonia. Therefore, a combination of supportive treatment and vancomycin would be the appropriate approach.

Listeriosis is a foodborne illness caused by the bacteria Listeria monocytogenes. It is commonly found in raw or undercooked meats, unpasteurized dairy products, and raw vegetables. However, bread is not typically associated with listeriosis as the baking process involves high temperatures that can kill the bacteria. Therefore, bread is not a type of food in which listeriosis is commonly found.

The correct answer is "all of the above." This means that all the options mentioned - recovering completely, feeling fine but becoming carriers, and having S. typhi colonize their GI tract - are characteristics of typhoid fever. After being infected, some individuals may recover fully, while others may not show any symptoms but still carry the bacteria and spread it to others. Additionally, the bacteria can colonize the gastrointestinal tract of infected individuals.

Staphylococcus is a type of bacteria that can cause skin infections. These infections can range from mild to severe and if left untreated, they can spread to the bloodstream, leading to septicemia. Septicemia is a serious condition where the bacteria and their toxins enter the bloodstream, causing a systemic infection. This can result in fever, chills, rapid heart rate, and other symptoms. Therefore, skin infections caused by Staphylococcus can potentially lead to septicemia if not properly treated.

A reservoir refers to a source of infection in the environment. It is an inanimate object that can harbor and transmit disease-causing organisms. This means that even though someone may have recovered from a disease, they can still spread it to others through contact with the reservoir. In the context of a disease outbreak, identifying and controlling these sources of infection is crucial in preventing further spread of the disease.

Bacteria are usually colorless and transparent, making them difficult to see under a microscope. Staining them helps to enhance their visibility by adding color to the cells. This allows us to observe their shape, size, and arrangement more clearly. Staining also helps in distinguishing different types of bacteria, as different stains can be used to highlight specific cellular structures or characteristics.

Antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents have been available to doctors since the 1940's. This era marked a significant advancement in medical science with the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1928 and its subsequent mass production during the 1940's. The development and availability of antibiotics revolutionized the treatment of bacterial infections and saved countless lives. Similarly, chemotherapeutic agents, such as methotrexate and nitrogen mustard, were also introduced in the 1940's, providing effective treatment options for cancer patients. Therefore, the 1940's was a pivotal period in the history of medicine, leading to the widespread use of antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents.

Cephalosporin is a type of antibiotic that inhibits cell wall synthesis. Cell walls are important for the structural integrity of bacteria, and by inhibiting their synthesis, cephalosporin weakens the cell walls and ultimately leads to the death of the bacteria. This mechanism of action is effective against a wide range of bacterial infections. However, cephalosporin does not affect protzoal metabolism, fungal nucleic acid synthesis, or RNA synthesis.

Griseofulvin is a medication used to treat fungal infections. It works by affecting fungal nucleic acid synthesis. This means that it interferes with the production of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, in fungi. By inhibiting this process, griseofulvin prevents the fungi from replicating and spreading, ultimately helping to clear the infection. It does not affect protzoal metabolism or folic acid synthesis, nor does it inhibit protein synthesis.

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Developing a vaccine for the common cold is difficult because the antigens on the outer surface of the virus constantly change, making it challenging to target them effectively. Additionally, there are numerous different viruses that can cause the common cold, further complicating the development of a single vaccine. Lastly, vaccine development can be expensive, and considering the common cold is a relatively minor disease, the cost may not be justified. Therefore, all of the mentioned reasons contribute to the difficulty in developing a vaccine for the common cold.

Proglottids are segments found in the reproductive system of tapeworms. They are responsible for producing eggs and are released from the tapeworm's body to be passed out in the host's feces. Each proglottid contains both male and female reproductive organs, allowing for self-fertilization. These segments play a crucial role in the life cycle of tapeworms by ensuring the production and dispersal of eggs, which can then be ingested by other hosts to continue the parasite's life cycle.

Different doses of a particular infectious agent can have different effects in some diseases. This means that the severity of the disease can vary depending on the dose of the infectious agent. Additionally, smaller doses can cause subclinical infections, which means that the person may not show any symptoms of the disease but can still be infected.

The complement cascade is a series of reactions in the immune system that play a crucial role in inflammation, cell-mediated response, humoral response, and opsonization. It involves a group of proteins that work together to tag pathogens for destruction, recruit immune cells to the site of infection, and enhance the effectiveness of antibodies. Activation of the complement cascade can lead to cell death of pathogens, as well as the activation of other immune responses.

IgE is responsible for allergic responses. IgE is an antibody that plays a crucial role in triggering allergic reactions. When a person is exposed to an allergen, such as pollen or pet dander, their immune system produces IgE antibodies. These antibodies then bind to mast cells and basophils, which are immune cells found in tissues throughout the body. When the person is exposed to the allergen again, it binds to the IgE antibodies on the mast cells and basophils, causing the release of histamine and other chemicals that lead to allergic symptoms like itching, sneezing, and inflammation.

IgA is the correct answer because it is found in tears. IgA is an immunoglobulin that is primarily found in mucosal secretions, including tears, saliva, and mucus. It plays a crucial role in protecting the mucosal surfaces of the body from infections by trapping pathogens and preventing their entry into the body. IgD, IgM, IgG, and IgE are also immunoglobulins, but they are not specifically found in tears.

Algae is the correct answer because it is a photosynthetic eukaryote. Algae are a diverse group of organisms that can range from unicellular to multicellular forms. They are capable of photosynthesis, which means they can convert sunlight into energy and produce their own food. Algae can be found in various aquatic environments such as freshwater and marine habitats. Unlike fungi, protozoa, bacteria, and viruses, algae have chloroplasts and can carry out photosynthesis.

The symptoms described in the scenario, such as difficulty keeping eyes open, trouble speaking and swallowing, shallow respiration, and difficulty standing, are consistent with botulism. Botulism is a rare but serious illness caused by a toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. This toxin affects the nerves and can lead to muscle weakness and paralysis. The fact that the patient has been canning vegetables and fruits in an overheated kitchen suggests that the food may have been contaminated with the bacteria, leading to botulism. Therefore, botulism is a possible alternative diagnosis in this case.

The patient is likely suffering from the emetic form of bacillus food poisoning because she had recently consumed leftover macaroni and cheese. This form of food poisoning is caused by Bacillus cereus, a bacterium commonly found in rice, pasta, and other starchy foods. Symptoms of this type of food poisoning include vomiting, nausea, and abdominal cramps, which align with the patient's symptoms.

The correct answer is meat. Bacillus food poisoning is commonly associated with consuming contaminated meat, especially undercooked or improperly stored meat. The bacteria Bacillus cereus can produce toxins that cause diarrhea and other gastrointestinal symptoms when ingested. Other types of foods, such as starchy foods, veggies, and candy, are not typically associated with this form of food poisoning.

The child most likely has diphtheria. Diphtheria is a bacterial infection caused by Corynebacterium diphtheriae, a non-spore forming gram-positive rod. The presence of a yellowish, thick membrane in the back of the throat is a characteristic symptom of diphtheria. Other symptoms such as fever, enlarged lymph nodes, and respiratory distress also align with diphtheria. The fact that the child's condition worsened despite treatment with ampicillin suggests that the initial diagnosis and treatment were incorrect, further supporting the likelihood of diphtheria.

Tinea infections are not all caused by the same fungus. Tinea is a general term for several different types of fungal infections that can affect the skin, hair, and nails. Each type of tinea infection is caused by a specific fungus. For example, tinea pedis (athlete's foot) is caused by a different fungus than tinea corporis (ringworm). Therefore, the statement that all tinea infections are caused by the same fungus is false.

Elephantitis, also known as lymphatic filariasis, is a condition caused by the parasitic worm transmitted through mosquito bites. The worms block the lymphatic system, leading to severe swelling in the limbs and other body parts. Consuming raw beef, walking barefoot in warm moist soil, or using manure in farm fields are not associated with the development of elephantitis. Therefore, the correct answer is "has been bitten by an infected mosquito."

The genome is the correct answer because it contains the genetic material necessary for replication to occur. The genome carries the instructions for the synthesis of viral proteins and the production of new viral particles. Without entering the host cytoplasm, the genome cannot utilize the host's cellular machinery to replicate and produce more viral particles. Therefore, the genome must enter the host cytoplasm for replication to take place.

Hemorrhagic viruses often kill by causing excessive bleeding throughout the body. These viruses, such as Ebola and Marburg, target the blood vessels and disrupt the body's ability to clot blood. As a result, the infected individual experiences severe internal and external bleeding, leading to organ failure and eventual death. This mechanism of bleeding to death is a characteristic feature of hemorrhagic viruses and distinguishes them from other causes of mortality.

Hepatitis viruses attack the liver, leading to various symptoms. Jaundice, dark urine, and light-colored feces are all common symptoms of liver damage caused by hepatitis. However, a macropapular rash is not typically associated with hepatitis. This rash is characterized by large, raised bumps on the skin and is more commonly seen in other viral infections or allergic reactions. Therefore, the correct answer is macropapular rash.

Filariasis is a parasitic disease transmitted through the bites of infected mosquitoes. The presence of a plentiful number of mosquitoes in an area increases the risk of transmission of the disease. Mosquitoes act as vectors for the filarial worms, which they acquire by feeding on infected humans. Therefore, areas with a high population of mosquitoes are likely to have a higher prevalence of filariasis. The other options mentioned, such as wild dogs, water bamboo, and snails, are not directly related to the transmission of filariasis.

Between 1964 and 2009, Texas has had the highest incidence of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) compared to New York, Florida, and Ohio. This suggests that Texas has had the highest number of reported cases of SLE during this time period. It could be due to various factors such as population size, environmental factors, or healthcare accessibility in Texas that have contributed to the higher incidence of SLE in the state.

The humoral response is one of the two main types of immune responses, along with the cell-mediated response. It involves the activation of B cells, which produce antibodies that circulate in the blood and lymphatic system. These antibodies can recognize and bind to specific antigens, marking them for destruction by other immune cells or neutralizing their effects. The humoral response is particularly effective against extracellular pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses that are circulating in the body fluids. This response is characterized by the production of plasma cells, which are specialized B cells that secrete large amounts of antibodies, and memory cells, which provide long-term immunity.

Inflammation is the correct answer because it causes dilation of capillaries. During inflammation, the body's immune response is activated, leading to an increase in blood flow to the affected area. This increase in blood flow causes the capillaries to dilate, allowing more immune cells and substances to reach the site of inflammation. This helps in fighting off any pathogens or foreign substances that may be present, and also facilitates the delivery of nutrients and oxygen to the area for tissue repair and healing.

The MHC proteins of cells play a crucial role in the immune system. They display antigens of self and non-self origin, allowing the immune system to distinguish between the body's own cells and foreign cells. Additionally, MHC proteins interact with both B cells and T cells, which are key players in the immune response. Therefore, the correct answer is a and b.

The correct answer is fungus because mycelium is a term used to describe the vegetative part of a fungus. Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that belong to their own kingdom, separate from plants, animals, and bacteria. They obtain nutrients by decomposing organic matter and play a crucial role in ecosystems as decomposers. Fungi can be found in various forms such as mushrooms, molds, and yeasts.

The correct answer is "ecdba". This order is based on the size of the organisms listed. The largest organism is "e" (mulitcellular organisms), followed by "c" (fungus), then "d" (yeast), "b" (average bacterium), and finally "a" (virus), which is the smallest organism.

The name "fluid mosaic model" is appropriate because it accurately describes the structure of the plasma membrane. The membrane is fluid because the phospholipids, which make up the majority of the membrane, are free to move. Additionally, the proteins within the membrane can also move. This fluidity allows for flexibility and dynamic interactions within the membrane. The term "mosaic" refers to the diverse composition of the membrane, with various proteins embedded within the phospholipid bilayer. Overall, the name captures the fluidity and complexity of the membrane structure.

The correct answer is "b and c only." Grandma was correct that stepping on a rusty nail could lead to tetanus because sharp objects can drive bacteria deep into a wound, and rust absorbs oxygen, allowing anaerobic bacteria to grow. The rust sticking the bacteria in the wound is not a valid explanation for tetanus.

Serratia is not a major cause of infectious gastroenteritis. Shigella, Salmonella, and Campylobacter are all well-known gram-negative rods that can cause gastroenteritis. However, Serratia is more commonly associated with other types of infections, such as urinary tract infections and respiratory tract infections, rather than gastroenteritis.

The capsid is the correct answer because it is a protective covering for the genome. The capsid is a protein shell that surrounds the genetic material of a virus, providing it with protection from the external environment. It helps to maintain the integrity of the genome and prevent it from being damaged or degraded. The capsid also plays a role in facilitating the entry of the virus into host cells and protecting it from the host's immune system. Therefore, the capsid serves as a crucial protective barrier for the genome within the virus.

Pneumonia is a disease that can affect both the very young and the elderly. It is characterized by the presence of fluid in the lungs. Additionally, pneumonia can be caused by a wide variety of organisms. Therefore, the correct answer is "all of the above" as all the statements mentioned are true about pneumonia.

Dermatophytosis is the correct answer. Dermatophytosis refers to any fungal infection of the skin, hair, or nails. It is caused by a group of fungi called dermatophytes, which feed on keratin, a protein found in the outer layers of the skin, hair, and nails. This infection can cause various symptoms such as itching, redness, scaling, and sometimes even hair loss. Treatment typically involves antifungal medications, both topical and oral, to eliminate the infection and relieve symptoms.

Histoplasmosis is a fungal infection caused by inhaling spores of the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum. It is commonly found in environments with high levels of bird or bat droppings, such as caves, chicken coops, and dry dusty soils. However, garage sales do not typically have the same conditions for the growth and spread of the fungus, so histoplasmosis is not associated with people who go to or work in garage sales.

Hookworms are parasites that enter the human body through the skin, usually through the feet. The larvae of hookworms can be found in soil contaminated with feces, and when a person walks barefoot on this contaminated soil, the larvae can penetrate the skin and enter the body. Once inside, the larvae migrate to the intestines where they mature into adult worms. Therefore, the correct answer is "larva entering through foot".

Oligodynamic activity refers to the phenomenon where a small amount of a substance is more effective than a large amount. This means that even a small concentration of the substance can have a significant impact or produce desired results. It implies that the substance is highly potent and efficient, making it more effective in smaller quantities compared to larger amounts.

Trachoma is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis. It primarily affects the eyes and is transmitted through direct contact with eye or nasal discharge of infected individuals. The symptoms of trachoma include inflammation of the conjunctiva, eyelid scarring, and ultimately, blindness if left untreated. The reference to "nervous, fever, eyes" in the answer suggests that trachoma affects the nervous system, causes fever, and specifically targets the eyes as its primary site of infection and manifestation.

Both syphilis and Lyme disease have distinct phases. Syphilis progresses through three phases: primary, secondary, and tertiary. The primary phase is characterized by the appearance of a painless sore at the site of infection, while the secondary phase involves rashes, fever, and flu-like symptoms. The tertiary phase can lead to severe complications affecting various organs. Similarly, Lyme disease has three phases: early localized, early disseminated, and late persistent. Each phase presents different symptoms and complications, including the characteristic bull's eye rash in the early stage.

Base analogs are chemical compounds that resemble the building blocks of DNA or RNA. When incorporated into the viral genome during replication, base analogs can cause mutations or disrupt the normal functioning of the genetic material. This can lead to viral inhibition, as the altered genome may not be able to effectively replicate or produce functional viral proteins. Therefore, the genome is affected by base analogs in viral inhibition.

Valley fever occurs in the American Southwest and Mexico, specifically in desert regions. It primarily affects individuals with compromised immune systems. The correct answer states that valley fever occurs in all the mentioned conditions except for between mountains, indicating that it does not occur in mountainous areas.

Most healthy individuals who contract CMV (Cytomegalovirus) do not show any symptoms. CMV is a common virus that can infect people of all ages, but it typically only causes mild illness or no symptoms at all in healthy individuals. However, CMV can be more severe and cause complications in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as newborns, pregnant women, and individuals with HIV/AIDS. Therefore, it is true that most healthy people who get CMV are asymptomatic.

The correct answer is "disease of outbreak" because an epidemic refers to a sudden increase in the number of cases of a particular disease in a specific population or geographic area. It is characterized by the rapid spread of the disease and affects a larger number of people than usual. Therefore, an epidemic can be described as a disease of outbreak.

The cell mediated response refers to the immune response that involves the activation of T cells, which are responsible for recognizing and destroying infected or cancerous cells. This response is characterized by the release of cytokines and the recruitment of other immune cells to the site of infection or tumor. Unlike the humoral response, which involves the production of antibodies by B cells, the cell mediated response directly targets and eliminates the cancer cells or infected cells. Therefore, the cell mediated response is the most appropriate explanation for destroying cancer cells.

IgA is the correct answer because it is the immunoglobulin that is primarily associated with mucous membranes. IgA is found in high concentrations in saliva, tears, and other bodily secretions, where it plays a crucial role in defending against pathogens that enter the body through these routes. It acts as the first line of defense by neutralizing and preventing the attachment of pathogens to the mucosal surfaces, thus preventing infections. IgA is also important in providing immunity to newborns through breast milk, as it helps protect their gastrointestinal tract from harmful bacteria and viruses.

The term "epidemic" is used to describe the occurrence of a disease in a larger number of cases than what is normally expected in a particular population or region. In this case, the statement "influenza reported in 36 states" suggests that the number of reported cases of influenza is higher than usual, indicating an outbreak that is spreading rapidly. Therefore, the correct answer is "epidemic."