Fundamentals Of The Nervous System And Nervous Tissue

The nervous system is responsible for controlling and coordinating all the activities of the body. It consists of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, which transmit signals between different parts of the body. The nervous system allows us to sense and respond to our environment, control our movements, and regulate bodily functions such as breathing, digestion, and heart rate. It plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and ensuring the proper functioning of all other systems in the body.

The term "multipolar" refers to a situation or condition where there are three or more processes involved. In this context, it suggests that there are at least three processes being discussed or compared - multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar. The answer "Multipolar" indicates that the question is asking for the term that represents a situation with three or more processes.

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, which are responsible for integrating and processing information from the sensory organs and initiating appropriate responses. It acts as the command center of the body, coordinating and controlling all bodily functions. The peripheral nervous system, on the other hand, consists of nerves that extend from the central nervous system to the rest of the body, transmitting information to and from the brain and spinal cord.

A single, short process refers to a neuron that has only one projection, or axon, extending from the cell body. This type of neuron is called unipolar. In contrast, multipolar neurons have multiple processes, including one axon and multiple dendrites, while bipolar neurons have two processes, one axon and one dendrite. Therefore, based on the given information, the correct answer is unipolar.

Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in the myelin sheath where adjacent Schwann cells do not cover the axon. These nodes play a crucial role in the conduction of nerve impulses. They allow for the saltatory conduction, where the electrical signal jumps from one node to another, significantly speeding up the transmission of the impulse along the axon. Axon collaterals can also emerge from these nodes, branching off to communicate with other neurons or muscle cells. Therefore, Nodes of Ranvier are the correct answer as they are the specific sites where axon collaterals can emerge.

The term "bipolar" refers to a type of neuron that has two processes, an axon and a dendrite, extending from its cell body. This means that the neuron has one process for receiving signals (dendrite) and another for transmitting signals (axon). In contrast, a unipolar neuron has only one process extending from the cell body, which serves both the receiving and transmitting functions. A multipolar neuron, on the other hand, has multiple processes extending from the cell body, typically one axon and multiple dendrites. Therefore, the correct answer in this case is "bipolar" because it accurately describes a neuron with two processes.

When gated channels are open, ions are able to move quickly across the membrane. This movement occurs along their electrochemical gradients, which means they move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. As ions move, an electrical current is created, leading to voltage changes across the membrane. Therefore, when gated channels are open, ions can freely move across the membrane, creating changes in voltage.

The potential difference across the membrane of a resting neuron is typically around -70mV. This value is known as the resting membrane potential and refers to the electrical charge difference between the inside and outside of the neuron when it is not actively transmitting signals. The negative value indicates that the inside of the neuron is more negatively charged compared to the outside. This resting potential is maintained by the selective permeability of the neuron's membrane to ions such as potassium and sodium, as well as the activity of ion channels and pumps.

The myelin sheath is a whitish, fatty segmented sheath that surrounds most long axons. It serves multiple functions, including protecting the axon, electrically insulating fibers from one another, and increasing the speed of nerve impulse transmission. The myelin sheath is formed by specialized cells called oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. These cells wrap around the axon, creating multiple layers of myelin that act as an insulating barrier. The gaps between the myelin sheath are called Nodes of Ranvier, which play a crucial role in the rapid conduction of nerve impulses.

The motor (efferent) division of the nervous system is responsible for transmitting impulses from the central nervous system (CNS) to effector organs. Effector organs include muscles and glands, and the motor division controls their activity. This division carries signals that initiate and control voluntary movements as well as involuntary responses. In contrast, the sensory (afferent) division transmits impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS, allowing us to perceive and interpret sensory information.

The postsynaptic neuron is the correct answer because it receives impulses from the presynaptic neuron at the synapse. The synapse is the junction between two neurons where communication occurs, and the presynaptic neuron transmits impulses to the postsynaptic neuron. Therefore, the postsynaptic neuron is responsible for receiving impulses and transmitting them further along the neural pathway.

Sensory afferent fibers are responsible for carrying impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints to the brain. These fibers transmit sensory information such as touch, pain, temperature, and proprioception from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system. This allows the brain to receive and process sensory input, enabling us to perceive and respond to our environment. The motor efferent division, on the other hand, is responsible for carrying impulses from the brain to the muscles and glands, controlling voluntary and involuntary movements.

The somatic nervous system is responsible for the conscious control of skeletal muscles. This system allows us to voluntarily move our muscles and perform actions such as walking, talking, and writing. It is under our conscious control, meaning that we can decide when and how to move our skeletal muscles. The autonomic nervous system, on the other hand, controls involuntary actions such as heart rate, digestion, and breathing.

The autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulating the activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. It controls involuntary actions such as heart rate, digestion, and perspiration. The somatic nervous system, on the other hand, controls voluntary movements and sensory information. Therefore, the autonomic nervous system is the correct answer for this question.

White matter refers to the areas of the central nervous system that are primarily composed of myelinated axons. Myelinated fibers are responsible for transmitting information between different areas of the brain and spinal cord. These fibers appear white due to the presence of myelin, a fatty substance that insulates and speeds up the conduction of nerve impulses. Therefore, dense collections of myelinated fibers are found in white matter. Gray matter, on the other hand, consists mainly of cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons.

Action potentials are electrical impulses that are carried along the length of axons. They are always the same regardless of the stimulus. This is a fundamental functional feature of the nervous system. Action potentials allow for rapid and efficient communication between different parts of the nervous system, enabling the transmission of information and control of bodily functions. They are essential for processes such as sensory perception, motor control, and overall coordination of the nervous system.

The autonomic nervous system consists of two divisions: the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division. These divisions work together to regulate the involuntary functions of the body. The sympathetic division is responsible for the "fight or flight" response, increasing heart rate and blood pressure, while the parasympathetic division promotes relaxation and digestion. Together, these divisions maintain a balance in the body's internal environment. The somatic nervous system, on the other hand, controls voluntary movements and sensory perception.

Motor (efferent) neurons carry impulses away from the central nervous system (CNS). These neurons transmit signals from the CNS to the muscles and glands, allowing for voluntary and involuntary movements and responses. They are responsible for controlling and coordinating motor functions in the body. Sensory (afferent) neurons, on the other hand, carry impulses towards the CNS, transmitting sensory information from the body's receptors to the brain and spinal cord. Interneurons, also known as association neurons, are found within the CNS and facilitate communication between sensory and motor neurons.

Gray matter is the correct answer because it primarily consists of soma (cell bodies) and unmyelinated fibers. Gray matter is responsible for processing information in the central nervous system and is found in regions such as the cerebral cortex and the spinal cord. It contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses, which are essential for information integration and processing. In contrast, white matter primarily consists of myelinated fibers that transmit signals between different regions of gray matter.

Sensory (afferent) neurons are responsible for transmitting impulses from sensory receptors to the central nervous system (CNS). These neurons detect various stimuli such as touch, temperature, pain, and send signals to the brain or spinal cord for processing. This allows us to perceive and respond to our environment. Motor (efferent) neurons, on the other hand, transmit impulses away from the CNS to muscles and glands, enabling movement and secretion. Interneurons, also found in the CNS, facilitate communication between sensory and motor neurons. However, in this case, the correct answer is sensory (afferent) because it specifically refers to neurons that transmit impulses toward the CNS.

Graded potentials are local changes in membrane potential that decrease in intensity with distance. The magnitude of graded potentials varies directly with the strength of the stimulus. Sufficiently strong graded potentials can initiate action potentials. Graded potentials are voltage changes that are decremental, meaning they decrease in strength as they spread through the cell. They only travel over short distances because the current is quickly dissipated due to the leaky membrane. Therefore, the given answer "Graded Potentials" is a correct explanation for the characteristics described.

The presynaptic neuron is responsible for conducting impulses toward the synapse. It is located before the synapse and releases neurotransmitters that travel across the synapse to the postsynaptic neuron. These neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, allowing the impulse to be transmitted further. Therefore, the presynaptic neuron plays a crucial role in transmitting signals between neurons.

The correct answer is Membrane Potential. Membrane potential refers to the electrical potential difference across a cell membrane. It is generated by the movement of ions across the membrane, which is controlled by changes in membrane permeability and alterations in ion concentrations. The membrane potential is important for integrating, sending, and receiving information within a cell.

The functions of the nervous system include sensory input, integration, and motor output. Sensory input involves receiving information from the environment through the senses. Integration refers to the processing and interpretation of this information in the brain and spinal cord. Finally, motor output involves the response of the body to the processed information, resulting in actions or movements.

The division of the PNS that contains sensory and visceral afferent fibers is the Sensory division. This division is responsible for transmitting sensory information from the body to the central nervous system, allowing us to perceive and respond to various stimuli. Sensory afferent fibers carry information from sensory receptors in the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain, while visceral afferent fibers transmit information from internal organs. The Motor division, on the other hand, is responsible for transmitting motor commands from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.

The myelin sheath is formed by Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). It is a protective covering that surrounds and insulates axons, allowing for faster and more efficient transmission of nerve impulses. The myelin sheath is interrupted at regular intervals by nodes of Ranvier, which play a crucial role in the conduction of nerve impulses. Unmyelinated axons do not have a myelin sheath, while dendrites are the receiving end of a neuron and do not form a myelin sheath.

Axosomatic refers to synapses between the axon of one neuron and the soma (cell body) of another neuron. The axon, which transmits signals away from the cell body, forms a connection with the soma of another neuron. This type of synapse allows for communication and signal transmission between neurons, contributing to the overall functioning of the nervous system.

The correct answer is Synaptic Cleft. The synaptic cleft is a fluid-filled space that separates the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. It acts as a barrier that prevents nerve impulses from directly passing from one neuron to the next. Instead, transmission occurs through the release and reception of chemical neurotransmitters, making it a chemical event. This unidirectional communication between neurons ensures that signals are transmitted in one direction only, allowing for precise and controlled communication within the nervous system.

Neurons are excitable cells that transmit electrical signals in the nervous system. They are specialized cells that have the ability to receive, process, and transmit information through electrical and chemical signals. Neurons play a crucial role in the communication and functioning of the nervous system, allowing for the transmission of sensory information, motor control, and cognitive processes. Neuroglia, astrocytes, and microglia are other types of cells in the nervous system, but they do not transmit electrical signals like neurons do.

Microglia are a type of phagocyte that monitor the health of neurons. They are the resident immune cells of the central nervous system and play a crucial role in immune defense and maintaining brain homeostasis. Microglia constantly survey the brain for any signs of damage, infection, or abnormality. When they detect any abnormalities, they become activated and phagocytose (engulf and digest) cellular debris, pathogens, and dead neurons. This helps in clearing out any potential threats and promoting the overall health and function of neurons.

The flow of electrical charge between two points is referred to as current (I). Current is the rate at which electric charges pass through a conductor. It is measured in amperes (A) and is determined by the voltage applied and the resistance of the conductor. A higher current indicates a larger flow of charges, while a lower current indicates a smaller flow. In contrast, resistance (R) opposes the flow of current and is measured in ohms (Ω). Insulators do not allow the flow of electric charges, while conductors facilitate the flow.

Action potentials are brief reversals of the membrane potential that occur in muscle cells and neurons. They have a total amplitude of 100 mV and are not decreased in strength over distance. Action potentials are the principal means of neural communication and are also known as nerve impulses in the axon of a neuron.

Excitatory neurotransmitters cause depolarizations by increasing the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron. When excitatory neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, they open ion channels that allow positive ions, such as sodium, to enter the cell. This influx of positive ions depolarizes the neuron, bringing it closer to the threshold for firing an action potential. As a result, excitatory neurotransmitters promote the transmission of signals and enhance neuronal activity. In contrast, inhibitory neurotransmitters cause hyperpolarizations, making it less likely for an action potential to occur.

Visceral afferent fibers are responsible for transmitting impulses from the visceral organs to the brain. These fibers carry sensory information from the internal organs, such as the heart, lungs, and digestive system, to the central nervous system. This allows the brain to receive feedback and information about the state and function of these organs. Sensory afferent fibers, on the other hand, transmit sensory information from the body's external environment to the brain.

The motor division of the nervous system is responsible for controlling voluntary and involuntary movements. It is divided into two main parts: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements, such as skeletal muscle contractions, while the autonomic nervous system controls involuntary movements, such as heart rate and digestion. Therefore, the correct answer is the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

The absolute refractory period is a period of time during which a neuron is unable to generate another action potential, regardless of the strength of the stimulus. This prevents the neuron from firing too frequently and ensures that each action potential is separate. It also enforces one-way transmission of nerve impulses by preventing the neuron from firing in the reverse direction.

Acetylcholine is the correct answer because it is a neurotransmitter that is released at the neuromuscular junction and is synthesized and enclosed in synaptic vesicles. It is also released by all neurons that stimulate skeletal muscle and some neurons in the autonomic nervous system. Amino acids, peptides, and biogenic amines are not specifically associated with these characteristics.

Integration refers to the process of combining and interpreting sensory input from various sources to create a cohesive understanding of the environment. It involves the brain's ability to analyze and synthesize information from the senses, such as sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell. Through integration, the brain can make sense of the sensory input and generate appropriate responses and actions. This process is crucial for perception, cognition, and motor coordination.

Ependymal cells are a type of glial cells that line the central cavities of the brain and spinal column. They play a crucial role in the production and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which provides essential nutrients and protection to the brain and spinal cord. Ependymal cells also help in the movement of CSF through the ventricles of the brain. Their location and function make them the correct answer for this question.

Axondendritic synapses refer to the connections between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another. This type of synapse allows for the transmission of information from the presynaptic neuron (axon) to the postsynaptic neuron (dendrite). These synapses play a crucial role in the communication and integration of signals within the nervous system.

A synapse is a junction that mediates information transfer from one neuron to another neuron or to an effector cell. It is the point at which the electrical signal in the form of action potential is converted into a chemical signal in the form of neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron or effector cell, allowing for the transmission of the signal. The synapse plays a crucial role in the communication between neurons and is essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system.

Dendrites are the receptive or input regions of a neuron. They have short tapering and diffusely branched processes that receive electrical signals from other neurons. These signals are conveyed as graded potentials, which are changes in the electrical potential of the dendrites. Therefore, dendrites are responsible for receiving and integrating incoming signals in a neuron.

Axons are responsible for generating and transmitting action potentials, as well as secreting neurotransmitters from their terminals. The myelin sheath, which is made up of Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes, surrounds and insulates the axons, allowing for faster conduction of the action potential. Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in the myelin sheath where the axon is exposed, allowing for saltatory conduction. Unmyelinated axons lack a myelin sheath and have a slower conduction speed compared to myelinated axons. Therefore, the correct answer is axons.

The correct answer is Axon. Axons are slender processes of uniform diameter that arise from the hillock and are long in length. They are called nerve fibers and usually, there is only one unbranched axon per neuron. Axons are responsible for transmitting electrical signals away from the neuron's cell body to other neurons or target cells.

The neurilemma is the outermost layer of the Schwann cell, which is a type of glial cell found in the peripheral nervous system. It surrounds and protects the axon, which is the long, slender projection of a nerve cell that carries electrical impulses. The nucleus and cytoplasm of the Schwann cell remain in the neurilemma, providing support and insulation for the axon. Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in the myelin sheath along the axon, while dendrites are short, branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons.

Resistance (R) is the hindrance to charge flow. It is a property of a material that opposes the flow of electric current. When a voltage (V) is applied across a conductor, the flow of charge is hindered by the resistance offered by the material. The higher the resistance, the more difficult it is for the charge to flow. Insulators, on the other hand, have very high resistance and do not allow the flow of charge easily. Conductors, on the other hand, have low resistance and allow the flow of charge. Therefore, resistance is the hindrance to charge flow.

Passive, or leakage, channels are always open. These channels allow the movement of ions across the cell membrane without any specific stimulus or signal. Unlike other channels that open or close in response to physical deformation of receptors, binding of a specific neurotransmitter, or changes in membrane potential, passive channels are continuously open, allowing the flow of ions in and out of the cell. This constant flow of ions helps maintain the resting membrane potential and is essential for various cellular processes.

Repolarization refers to the process in which the membrane potential of a cell returns to its resting state after depolarization. During depolarization, the membrane potential becomes more positive, and repolarization occurs when it returns to its original negative resting potential. This is achieved through the movement of ions across the cell membrane, restoring the balance of electrical charges. Therefore, repolarization is the correct answer in this context.

Interneurons are responsible for transmitting signals between sensory neurons and motor neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). They act as a bridge, relaying information and coordinating communication between different parts of the CNS. Unlike sensory and motor neurons, which carry signals to and from the CNS, interneurons primarily function within the CNS itself. Therefore, interneurons are the correct answer for the given question about shuttle signals through CNS pathways.

During repolarization, the sodium gates are closed and the potassium gates are open, which allows potassium ions to flow out of the cell, restoring the cell's negative charge. This process increases the threshold level, making it more difficult for a new action potential to be generated. However, if a strong enough stimulus is applied during this time, it can still trigger an action potential, although it would require a higher intensity compared to the resting state. This period is known as the relative refractory period, where the cell is in a state of reduced excitability.