Final Exam Review Part 2

Petroleum is classified as nonrenewable because it is formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals that lived millions of years ago. The process of forming petroleum takes a very long time, and the rate at which it is being consumed far exceeds the rate at which it is being replenished. Therefore, once petroleum reserves are depleted, they cannot be easily replaced within a human lifetime. This makes petroleum a finite resource, making it nonrenewable.

Soil is composed of various components, including humus, water, and air. Humus refers to the organic matter in soil, which is derived from decomposed plant and animal material. Water is an essential component of soil, as it provides moisture for plants and helps in nutrient absorption. Air is also present in soil, allowing for gas exchange and providing oxygen for root respiration. Therefore, all of the given options - humus, water, and air - are correct in comprising soil.

Darcy's law is a mathematical law that describes groundwater flow. It states that the rate of flow of groundwater is directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient and the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer, and inversely proportional to the distance through which the water flows. This law is widely used in hydrogeology to understand and predict the movement of groundwater in porous media.

The Cenozoic era was the era of mammals and flowering plants. This era began after the extinction of dinosaurs and saw the rise and diversification of mammals. It was also a time when flowering plants, or angiosperms, became dominant and diversified. The Cenozoic era is often referred to as the "Age of Mammals" because of the significant evolutionary developments and adaptations seen in mammalian species during this time. Additionally, the era witnessed the widespread proliferation of flowering plants, which played a crucial role in shaping modern ecosystems.

The primary means of heat transfer within Earth is mantle convection. This is the process by which heat is transferred through the movement of the Earth's mantle, which is the layer of hot, semi-solid rock beneath the Earth's crust. As the mantle heats up, it becomes less dense and rises towards the surface, transferring heat from the Earth's interior to the surface. Once it reaches the surface, the mantle cools and becomes denser, causing it to sink back towards the interior. This continuous cycle of rising and sinking of the mantle material helps in the transfer of heat within the Earth.

Mass wasting refers to the movement of rock, soil, and debris down a slope due to the force of gravity. Both earthquakes and water can act as triggers for mass wasting. Earthquakes can destabilize slopes by shaking the ground, causing rocks and soil to loosen and slide downhill. Water, on the other hand, can increase the weight and lubrication of the materials, making them more prone to sliding. Therefore, both earthquakes and water can initiate mass wasting events.

Permeability refers to the ability of water to move through a rock or any other material. It is a measure of how easily water can flow through the pores or spaces within the rock. Rocks with high permeability have interconnected pores that allow water to flow through easily, while rocks with low permeability have smaller, less interconnected pores that restrict water movement. Therefore, permeability is the most suitable term to describe the ease with which water can move through a rock.

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Compressional stress squeezes and shortens rocks. This type of stress occurs when two tectonic plates collide or when rocks are pushed together. The pressure causes the rocks to deform and fold, leading to compression and shortening. This is different from tensional stress, which pulls rocks apart, and shear stress, which causes rocks to slide past each other. Strenuous stress is not a recognized term in geology.

After observing natural events and collecting data, a scientist will then move on to hypothesize, which involves proposing a possible explanation or solution based on the observed data. Once the hypothesis is formed, the scientist will proceed to theorize, which involves developing a well-supported explanation or model that can be used to predict and explain the observed phenomena. Theorizing is the final step in the scientific process before further testing and experimentation.

This statement is false because minerals with the same chemical composition can have different internal structures. The internal structure of a mineral is determined by the arrangement of its atoms or ions. Even if two minerals have the same chemical composition, their atoms or ions can be arranged differently, resulting in different internal structures. This is why minerals can have different crystal structures and exhibit different physical properties, such as hardness or cleavage.

Gneissic texture refers to the banded appearance of a rock due to the highly segregated minerals. This texture is commonly found in gneiss, a metamorphic rock that has undergone intense heat and pressure. The minerals in gneiss are arranged in alternating light and dark bands, giving it a distinct layered or banded appearance. This texture is different from schistosity, which refers to the parallel alignment of minerals in a rock, and slatey texture, which refers to the fine-grained and fissile nature of slate.

Igneous texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of the mineral grains in an igneous rock. While it is an important characteristic of the rock, it does not directly affect the strength of the rock. Factors such as time, temperature, and rock type can all have an impact on rock strength. Time allows for processes like weathering and erosion to weaken the rock, temperature changes can cause expansion and contraction leading to cracking, and different rock types have varying compositions and structures that can affect their strength. However, the texture of an igneous rock alone does not have a direct influence on its strength.

An angular unconformity occurs when tilted or folded rocks are overlain by flat-lying rocks. The term "angular" refers to the difference in orientation between the two sets of rocks, with the underlying rocks being tilted or folded and the overlying rocks being horizontal or flat-lying. This type of unconformity represents a significant gap in the geological record, indicating a period of erosion and uplift followed by deposition of new sedimentary layers. The term "disconformity" refers to a more subtle unconformity where there is a horizontal gap in the rock layers, and "nonconformity" refers to an unconformity between sedimentary rocks and underlying igneous or metamorphic rocks. "Extraterrestrial unconformity" is not a recognized term in geology.

The given question is incomplete as it does not provide any context or information about the layers of the ocean crust. Therefore, it is not possible to generate an accurate explanation for the correct answer.

Heat is the most important factor driving metamorphism because it causes the minerals in rocks to recrystallize and change their chemical composition. As temperature increases, the atoms in the minerals become more mobile and can rearrange themselves into new crystal structures. This process can result in the formation of new minerals and the alteration of existing ones. Heat is often generated by the burial of rocks deep within the Earth's crust or by the intrusion of hot magma. It plays a crucial role in transforming rocks into metamorphic rocks.

Cinder cone volcanoes have a very simple and distinctive shape because of the slope that loose pyroclastic material maintains as it settles. This type of volcano is formed by explosive eruptions that eject fragments of lava, ash, and other volcanic materials into the air. These materials fall back to the ground and accumulate around the vent, creating a cone-shaped structure with steep sides. The loose and fragmented nature of the pyroclastic material contributes to the characteristic shape of cinder cone volcanoes.

The correct order of the earthquakes from smallest to largest amount of energy released is Haiti, Chile, Japan. This means that the earthquake in Haiti released the least amount of energy, followed by the earthquake in Chile, and finally the earthquake in Japan released the largest amount of energy.

The correct answer is Acadia. The statement mentions that an island arc collided with North America 400 million years ago, which is the key characteristic of the Acadia orogeny. The Acadia orogeny refers to the mountain-building event that occurred during the Middle to Late Silurian period when an island arc called the Avalon terrane collided with the eastern margin of North America. This collision resulted in the formation of the Appalachian Mountains in eastern North America. Therefore, Acadia is the appropriate answer based on the given information.

When the temperature increases, it provides the necessary energy to break the bonds between the solid particles, causing them to melt and form a liquid called magma. This increase in temperature allows the solid rock to reach its melting point, where it transitions from a solid to a liquid state. Therefore, an increase in temperature is a factor that causes melting to form magma.

Old oceanic lithosphere is denser and colder compared to younger lithosphere. As a result, it is more likely to subduct at steeper angles. This is because the denser lithosphere sinks beneath the less dense lithosphere at subduction zones. The angle at which subduction occurs can vary, but it is generally steeper for older lithosphere. Therefore, the statement that old oceanic lithosphere will subduct at 90 degree angles is true.

Volcanoes can be found at divergent plate boundaries, where two plates move away from each other, and magma rises to fill the gap. They can also be found at oceanic-oceanic and oceanic-continental convergent plate boundaries, where one plate is forced beneath another, creating intense heat and pressure that leads to volcanic activity. However, transform faults are boundaries where two plates slide past each other horizontally, without creating or destroying crust. Therefore, volcanoes are not typically found at transform faults.

When broad upwarps in basement rock deform the overlying cover of sedimentary strata and generate large folds, they can create a circular or slightly elongated structure known as a dome. A dome is a type of fold where the layers of rock are arched upward, forming a rounded shape. This is in contrast to an anticline, which is a fold where the layers of rock are arched downward. A basin is a depression in the Earth's surface, while a syncline is a fold where the layers of rock are arched downward in a U-shape.

The statement is false because a ridge axis is actually elevated when spreading rates are high. Spreading rates refer to the rate at which tectonic plates move apart from each other, and when this movement is fast, it causes the ridge axis to be uplifted and form a higher elevation. This is because the high spreading rates create more tension and magma upwelling, leading to increased volcanic activity and the formation of a higher ridge axis.

Feldspars are the most abundant minerals on Earth's surface. They are a group of rock-forming minerals that make up about 60% of the Earth's crust. Feldspars are found in a variety of rocks, including granite, gneiss, and basalt. They are commonly used in the production of ceramics, glass, and as a filler in various products. Due to their abundance and wide distribution, feldspars are considered the most common mineral on Earth's surface.

The correct answer is Hadean, Archaen, Proterozoic, Phanerozoic. This is the correct order of the eons from oldest to youngest. The Hadean eon refers to the earliest period in Earth's history, followed by the Archaen eon. The Proterozoic eon comes next, and finally, the Phanerozoic eon, which is the current eon and encompasses the time when complex life forms emerged.

A sill is an example of a concordant igneous intrusion because it is a horizontal sheet of igneous rock that is formed when magma is injected between layers of existing rock and solidifies underground. Sills are parallel to the layers of the surrounding rock and do not cut across them, indicating that they intruded in a concordant manner. This is in contrast to dikes, which cut across the layers of rock, and plutons and batholiths, which are large intrusive bodies that can have various orientations. Therefore, the correct answer is sill.

The era that means "recent life" is the Cenozoic era. This era is characterized by the dominance of mammals and the diversification of many modern animal and plant groups. It began about 66 million years ago and continues to the present day. The name Cenozoic comes from the Greek words "kainos" meaning "recent" and "zoikos" meaning "life", reflecting the era's focus on the development and evolution of life forms that are familiar to us today.

The P-wave shadow zone occurs because P-waves are refracted downward in the outer core. This is because the outer core is made of liquid iron and nickel, which have different properties than the solid mantle and crust. When P-waves encounter the boundary between the mantle and outer core, they are refracted and change direction, causing a shadow zone where P-waves cannot be detected. This phenomenon provides evidence for the existence of the Earth's outer core and helps scientists understand the structure and composition of the Earth's interior.

Abyssal plains are vast, flat areas on the ocean floor that are covered in thick layers of sediments. These sediments accumulate over time due to various processes such as erosion, deposition, and the settling of particles from the water column. The lack of significant tectonic activity and the slow sedimentation rate in abyssal plains allow for the accumulation of massive amounts of sediment. This makes abyssal plains an ideal location for finding extensive sediment deposits.

Regional metamorphism occurs during mountain building processes when large areas of rock are subjected to high temperatures and pressures over long periods of time. This type of metamorphism is responsible for the formation of most metamorphic rocks. Contact metamorphism, on the other hand, occurs when rocks come into contact with magma or hot fluids, while impact metamorphism occurs due to the high pressures and temperatures generated by meteorite impacts. Subduction zone metamorphism occurs at convergent plate boundaries where one tectonic plate is forced beneath another, resulting in high pressures and temperatures. However, regional metamorphism is the most common type associated with mountain building.

An Andean-type mountain belt will have a deep ocean trench and a volcanic mountain range because this type of mountain belt is formed by the subduction of an oceanic plate beneath a continental plate. The subduction of the oceanic plate creates a deep ocean trench, while the melting of the subducted plate generates magma that rises to the surface, forming a volcanic mountain range. Therefore, both options a and b are correct.

At an oceanic-continental plate boundary, subduction occurs. This is when the denser oceanic plate is forced beneath the less dense continental plate, forming a subduction zone. This process leads to the formation of features such as trenches, volcanic arcs, and earthquakes.

The Moho, also known as the Mohorovičić discontinuity, is the boundary between the Earth's crust and the underlying mantle. S-waves are a type of seismic wave that can only travel through solid materials, and they are slower than P-waves. When S-waves cross the Moho, they actually experience an increase in velocity because they transition from the crust to the more rigid mantle. Therefore, the statement that the velocity of S-waves decreases as they cross the Moho is false.

Nitrogen is not a greenhouse gas because it does not trap heat in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases, such as CO2, methane, and water vapor, have the ability to absorb and emit infrared radiation, which leads to the greenhouse effect and global warming. Nitrogen, on the other hand, is a major component of the Earth's atmosphere, but it does not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect.

Correlation is used to match rocks that are separated by short distances, while fossil succession is used to match rocks that are separated by long distances. Correlation involves comparing the similarities in rock layers and their characteristics to determine their relative ages. Fossil succession, on the other hand, relies on the principle that certain fossils only exist in specific time periods, allowing geologists to match rocks that are far apart based on the presence of these index fossils.

The term "bed load" refers to the transport of sediment in a stream by sliding or rolling along the bottom. This type of sediment transport occurs when larger particles, such as pebbles or rocks, are moved by the force of the flowing water. These particles are too heavy to be suspended in the water and instead move along the streambed. This process is an important mechanism for the movement of sediment in rivers and streams, contributing to erosion and deposition in the channel.

During the Mesozoic era, Pangaea, the supercontinent, began to break apart. This event resulted in the separation of the landmass into different continents as we know them today. This process led to the formation of new ocean basins and the shifting of tectonic plates. The breakup of Pangaea had significant geological and biological consequences, including the creation of new habitats and the evolution of new species.

Intermediate and deep earthquakes occur at convergent plate boundaries. Convergent plate boundaries are areas where two tectonic plates collide or move towards each other. In these zones, one plate is forced beneath the other in a process called subduction. As the subducting plate sinks deeper into the Earth's mantle, it can cause intense pressure and friction, leading to the occurrence of intermediate and deep earthquakes. These earthquakes typically happen at depths ranging from 70 to 300 kilometers below the Earth's surface.

Earthflow can form on hillsides in humid regions due to the presence of saturated soil. In these conditions, gravity causes the soil to slowly move downhill, resulting in a flow-like movement. The moisture content in the soil plays a crucial role in the occurrence of earthflows, as it reduces the friction between soil particles, making it easier for the soil to move. Earthflows are common in areas with steep slopes and heavy rainfall, where the combination of gravity and water saturation contributes to their formation.