Doh Exam

Carbocisteine is a mucolytic agent that helps to break down and thin mucus in the respiratory tract. It is commonly used to treat conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and bronchitis. This medication works by reducing the viscosity of mucus, making it easier to cough up and clear from the airways. Dornase alfa is another mucolytic agent used specifically for cystic fibrosis, while the other options listed are not mucolytic agents and have different mechanisms of action or indications.

Streptomycin is used in tuberculosis patients because it is an effective antibiotic that specifically targets the bacteria that causes tuberculosis. It inhibits protein synthesis in the bacteria, leading to their death. Streptomycin is often used in combination with other antibiotics to treat tuberculosis, as it helps to prevent the development of drug resistance.

Retinol, also known as vitamin A, is associated with ocular defects such as xerophthalmia. Xerophthalmia is a condition characterized by dryness of the conjunctiva and cornea, leading to night blindness and eventually permanent blindness if left untreated. Retinol is essential for maintaining the health of the eyes and is involved in the production of visual pigments in the retina. A deficiency in retinol can lead to a range of eye problems, including xerophthalmia.

Vitamin E is an antioxidant. Antioxidants help protect the body's cells from damage caused by free radicals, which are unstable molecules that can harm cells. Vitamin E acts as a scavenger, neutralizing free radicals and preventing them from causing damage. It also helps to protect the body's tissues and organs from oxidative stress.

Carbamazepine is used to control epilepsy. It is an anticonvulsant medication that works by reducing the abnormal electrical activity in the brain that causes seizures. It is commonly prescribed for the treatment of various types of epilepsy, including partial seizures, generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and mixed seizures. Carbamazepine is also used to treat other conditions such as trigeminal neuralgia and bipolar disorder.

Nifedipine is not an H2 receptor antagonist. It is a calcium channel blocker commonly used to treat high blood pressure and angina. H2 receptor antagonists, on the other hand, are a class of drugs that block the action of histamine on the H2 receptors in the stomach, reducing the production of stomach acid. Examples of H2 receptor antagonists include cimetidine, ranitidine, famotidine, and nizatidine.

All of the above beta blockers (Atenolol, Celiprolol, Nadolol, and Sotalol) are water soluble.

Montelukast is a leukotriene receptor antagonist. Leukotrienes are inflammatory mediators that play a role in conditions such as asthma and allergic rhinitis. Montelukast works by blocking the action of leukotrienes, reducing inflammation and preventing symptoms such as wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath. Therefore, Montelukast is the correct answer as it specifically targets and antagonizes leukotriene receptors.

Sildenafil is used in erectile dysfunction. It is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibitors. It works by increasing blood flow to the penis during sexual stimulation, allowing for an erection to occur. Sildenafil is commonly sold under the brand name Viagra and is a widely prescribed treatment for erectile dysfunction.

Atorvastatin is a HMG Co-A reductase inhibitor. HMG Co-A reductase is an enzyme involved in the production of cholesterol in the liver. By inhibiting this enzyme, Atorvastatin helps to lower cholesterol levels in the blood. It is commonly prescribed to treat high cholesterol and reduce the risk of heart disease.

Oxytocin is a peptide hormone released from the posterior pituitary. It plays a crucial role in various reproductive functions, including uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding. Oxytocin also influences social bonding and maternal behavior.

ACE inhibitors are a class of medications commonly used to treat high blood pressure and heart failure. One of the most common side effects of ACE inhibitors is a dry cough. This occurs due to the inhibition of an enzyme called ACE, which can lead to an accumulation of bradykinin in the lungs. Bradykinin is known to cause irritation and inflammation in the airways, resulting in a persistent dry cough. Therefore, dry cough is the main side effect associated with ACE inhibitors.

Ascorbic acid, also known as vitamin C, can cause oxalate stones when taken in excessive amounts. Oxalate is a substance found in certain foods and can combine with calcium to form kidney stones. High doses of ascorbic acid can lead to increased oxalate levels in the urine, increasing the risk of stone formation. Therefore, an overdose of ascorbic acid can result in toxicity and the development of oxalate stones.

Sildenafil is the correct answer because it is classified as a phosphodiesterase inhibitor and is used for male erectile dysfunction. This medication works by increasing blood flow to the penis, helping men achieve and maintain an erection. Yohimbine is also used for erectile dysfunction, but it is not a phosphodiesterase inhibitor. Testosterone and methyltestosterone are hormones used for various conditions, but they are not specifically indicated for erectile dysfunction. Therefore, the correct answer is sildenafil.

Theophylline increases cyclic AMP levels by inhibiting its breakdown by the enzyme phosphodiesterase. It also acts as an adenosine antagonist at several adenosine receptor sites.

Disulfiram is used in the treatment of alcohol dependence. It works by causing unpleasant symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and flushing when alcohol is consumed, which acts as a deterrent to drinking. This medication helps individuals who are trying to quit drinking by creating an aversion to alcohol and discouraging them from relapsing. Carnitine, hydroxycarbamide, chlorpropamide, and terbinafine are not typically used in the treatment of alcohol dependence.

Hydroxychloroquine is an antimalarial agent that is also used in the treatment of Rheumatoid arthritis. It is commonly prescribed to reduce pain and inflammation in the joints caused by this autoimmune disease. Hydroxychloroquine works by suppressing the immune system and reducing the production of certain chemicals that cause inflammation. It is often used in combination with other medications to manage the symptoms of Rheumatoid arthritis and improve the overall quality of life for patients.

Simethicone is an antifoaming agent used to relieve flatulence. It works by breaking down gas bubbles in the stomach and intestines, allowing them to be passed more easily. This helps to reduce bloating, discomfort, and excessive gas caused by the accumulation of gas in the digestive system. Magnesium hydroxide, aluminium hydroxide, sodium bicarbonate, and alginates are not specifically antifoaming agents and are used for different purposes such as antacids or as a protective barrier for the stomach lining.

Eplerenone is not a thiazide diuretic. Thiazide diuretics are a type of medication used to treat high blood pressure and edema by increasing urine production. Bendroflumethazide, hydrochlorothiazide, chlorthalidone, and indapamide are all examples of thiazide diuretics. Eplerenone, on the other hand, is a selective aldosterone receptor antagonist that works by blocking the effects of aldosterone, a hormone that promotes sodium and water retention. While it is also used to treat high blood pressure, it is not classified as a thiazide diuretic.

Valsartan is an angiotensin II antagonist. Angiotensin II is a hormone that causes blood vessels to narrow, leading to increased blood pressure. Angiotensin II antagonists block the action of this hormone, causing blood vessels to relax and blood pressure to decrease. Fluphenazine, Nifedipine, Pentazosin, and Gemfibrozil are not angiotensin II antagonists.

Selenium is an antioxidant because it helps to protect cells from damage caused by free radicals. Free radicals are unstable molecules that can cause oxidative stress, leading to various health problems. Selenium works by neutralizing these free radicals and preventing them from causing harm. It also plays a crucial role in the production of enzymes that have antioxidant properties. Therefore, selenium is considered an essential trace element with antioxidant properties.

Labetalol is indicated in the treatment of hypertension in pregnancy because it is a beta blocker that has both alpha- and beta-blocking properties. This allows it to lower blood pressure without causing significant constriction of blood vessels, which is important for maintaining adequate blood flow to the placenta and fetus. Labetalol is considered safe to use during pregnancy and is commonly used for the management of hypertension in pregnant women.

Enoxaparin is a low molecular weight heparin. Heparin is a medication used to prevent and treat blood clots. It works by inhibiting the activity of certain clotting factors in the blood. Enoxaparin is a specific type of heparin that has a lower molecular weight compared to regular heparin. This means that it has a smaller size and is more easily absorbed and distributed in the body. Enoxaparin is commonly used to prevent blood clots in patients undergoing surgery or those at risk of developing deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism.

Mannitol is a hyperosmotic agent commonly used to treat glaucoma. It works by drawing fluid out of the eye, thereby reducing intraocular pressure. This can help to prevent damage to the optic nerve and preserve vision. Mannitol is administered as an intravenous infusion and is particularly useful in emergency situations when rapid reduction of intraocular pressure is required. It is also used during certain surgical procedures to maintain a clear field of vision.

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a condition characterized by the enlargement of the prostate gland, leading to urinary symptoms such as frequent urination, weak urine flow, and difficulty in starting and stopping urination. Terazosin, Doxazosin, Indoramin, and Prazosin are all alpha-blocker medications commonly used to treat BPH. They work by relaxing the muscles in the prostate and bladder neck, improving urine flow and reducing symptoms. However, Moxonidine is not indicated for the treatment of BPH. Moxonidine is actually a centrally acting antihypertensive medication used to lower blood pressure by reducing sympathetic nerve activity. Therefore, it is not indicated for the treatment of BPH.

Sertraline is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, and other mental health conditions. SSRIs work by increasing the levels of serotonin in the brain, which helps to improve mood and reduce symptoms of depression. Tryptophan is an amino acid and precursor to serotonin, but it is not an SSRI. Venlafaxine, mirtazapine, and duloxetine are all antidepressant medications, but they are not specifically classified as SSRIs. Therefore, the correct answer is sertraline.

Nystatin is a polyene macrolide that is commonly used as an antifungal agent. It works by binding to ergosterol, a component of fungal cell membranes, and causing damage to the cell membrane. This leads to leakage of cellular contents and ultimately kills the fungus. Nystatin is primarily used topically to treat fungal infections of the skin, mouth, and vagina. It is not well absorbed by the body when taken orally, so it is not effective for systemic fungal infections.

Olnazapine is an atypical antipsychotic. It is used to treat various mental disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Atypical antipsychotics are newer generation drugs that have a different mechanism of action compared to traditional antipsychotics. They are generally more effective in treating both positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia and have fewer side effects. Olnazapine works by blocking certain receptors in the brain, specifically dopamine and serotonin receptors, which helps to regulate the neurotransmitters and reduce psychotic symptoms.

Bupropion HCl is used in smoking cessation. It is an antidepressant medication that also acts as a smoking cessation aid. It works by reducing nicotine cravings and withdrawal symptoms, making it easier for individuals to quit smoking. Bupropion HCl is believed to work by increasing the levels of certain chemicals in the brain that help regulate mood and behavior. It is often prescribed as part of a comprehensive smoking cessation program that includes counseling and support.

Erythromycin is a macrolide antibiotic because it belongs to the macrolide class of antibiotics. Macrolide antibiotics inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit, thus preventing the growth and reproduction of bacteria. This class of antibiotics is commonly used to treat various bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, skin infections, and sexually transmitted diseases. Erythromycin is effective against a wide range of bacteria and is often used as an alternative to penicillin in individuals with penicillin allergies.

Dextromethorphan is an antitussive opioid. It is commonly used in cough syrups and cold medications to suppress coughing. It works by acting on the cough center in the brain, reducing the urge to cough. Unlike other opioids, dextromethorphan does not have analgesic or addictive properties, making it a safer option for cough suppression.

Antacids are known to decrease the absorption of tetracycline antibiotics. Tetracyclines require an acidic environment for optimal absorption, and antacids work by neutralizing stomach acid, thereby reducing the acidity. This alteration in pH can interfere with the absorption of tetracyclines, leading to decreased effectiveness. Therefore, when taken together, antacids can interact with tetracyclines and result in decreased tetracycline absorption.

Doxycycline is the antibacterial of choice for early Lyme disease. Lyme disease is caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi, and doxycycline is effective against this bacterium. It is often used as the first-line treatment for early Lyme disease due to its ability to penetrate tissues and effectively kill the bacteria. Additionally, doxycycline has a broad spectrum of activity against other bacteria and is well-tolerated by patients. Therefore, it is the preferred choice for treating early Lyme disease.

Foscarnet sodium is used in the treatment of cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis in AIDS. CMV retinitis is a viral infection that affects the retina of the eye, and it is a common opportunistic infection in individuals with AIDS. Foscarnet sodium is an antiviral medication that works by inhibiting the replication of CMV. It is administered intravenously and is considered a second-line treatment option for CMV retinitis when other antiviral drugs are not effective or cannot be used. Toremifene, tamoxifen, and calcium folinate are not used in the treatment of CMV retinitis.

Tetrabenazine is used to control movement disorders in Huntington's chorea. Huntington's chorea is a genetic disorder that affects the brain and causes uncontrolled movements. Tetrabenazine works by reducing the amount of dopamine in the brain, which helps to control these abnormal movements. It is specifically approved for the treatment of chorea associated with Huntington's disease. Tioguanine is a medication used to treat certain types of cancer, testosterone is a hormone used for various purposes, tormentine is not a known medication, and exemestane is used for the treatment of breast cancer. Therefore, tetrabenazine is the correct answer for controlling movement disorders in Huntington's chorea.

Spasmodic torticollis, also known as cervical dystonia, is a neurological disorder characterized by involuntary muscle contractions in the neck that cause abnormal head and neck movements. Botulinum toxin is indicated in the treatment of spasmodic torticollis as it can help relax the muscles and reduce the severity of the symptoms. Nitrofurantoin, solifenacin succinate, flavoxate HCl, and oxybutynin HCl are not indicated in the treatment of spasmodic torticollis and are used for different medical conditions.

Dobutamine is a catecholamine derivative that is used to increase cardiac output and decrease total peripheral resistance (TPR) and pulmonary artery occlusion pressure (PAOP). It is the parenteral agent of choice for achieving these beneficial hemodynamic effects.

Methylphenidate HCl is indicated in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). It is a central nervous system stimulant that helps improve focus, reduce impulsivity, and control hyperactivity in individuals with ADHD. Methylphenidate works by increasing the levels of certain chemicals in the brain that are responsible for regulating attention and behavior. It is commonly prescribed as part of a comprehensive treatment plan that may also include behavioral therapy and educational interventions.

Betahistine dihcl is indicated for tinnitus and hearing loss associated with Meniere's disease. Meniere's disease is a disorder of the inner ear that can cause symptoms such as vertigo, tinnitus (ringing in the ears), and hearing loss. Betahistine dihcl is a histamine analogue that helps to improve blood flow in the inner ear, reducing the frequency and severity of these symptoms. It is commonly prescribed as a treatment for Meniere's disease to alleviate the symptoms of tinnitus and hearing loss.

Co-amoxiclav is a broad-spectrum antibiotic because it contains two active ingredients, amoxicillin and clavulanic acid. Amoxicillin is a penicillin-type antibiotic that is effective against a wide range of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Clavulanic acid is a beta-lactamase inhibitor that helps to enhance the effectiveness of amoxicillin by preventing the breakdown of the antibiotic by certain bacteria. Therefore, co-amoxiclav is able to treat a broad range of bacterial infections.

Ondansetron is a 5-HT3 antagonist. 5-HT3 antagonists are a class of drugs that block the action of serotonin on the 5-HT3 receptors in the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract. Ondansetron is commonly used to prevent nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgery. It works by blocking the serotonin receptors in the brain and gut, reducing the signals that trigger nausea and vomiting. Nefopam HCl, eletriptan, pizotifen, and methysergide are not 5-HT3 antagonists.

Donepezil is used in the treatment of dementia. It is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called cholinesterase inhibitors. It works by increasing the levels of a certain chemical messenger in the brain, which helps to improve memory and cognitive function in individuals with dementia. Donepezil is commonly prescribed for Alzheimer's disease, which is a type of dementia. It does not cure dementia, but it can help to slow down the progression of symptoms and improve the overall quality of life for patients.

Ketoconazole is used in the treatment of Histoplasmosis, a fungal infection caused by Histoplasma capsulatum. It is an antifungal agent that works by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, an essential component of fungal cell membranes. This disruption of the cell membrane leads to the death of the fungus. Ketoconazole is effective against a wide range of fungal infections, including Histoplasmosis.

Quinidine is an alkaloid that is commonly used in the treatment of arrhythmias. It works by blocking certain electrical signals in the heart, helping to regulate the heart's rhythm. This medication is often prescribed for conditions such as atrial fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia. Quinidine is classified as a Class IA antiarrhythmic drug and is known to have both antiarrhythmic and antimalarial properties. It is important to note that Quinidine should only be used under the guidance and supervision of a healthcare professional.

Alprazolam is the correct answer because it is a medication commonly used in the treatment of panic disorder. It works by binding to the GABA receptor, which causes an influx of chloride ions into the locus ceruleus neurons. The locus ceruleus neurons are responsible for non-adrenergic output in the brain, and by reducing nor epinephrine output, Alprazolam helps to alleviate symptoms of panic disorder.

Mefenamic acid is from the Anthranilic acid group. It is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that is commonly used to relieve pain, inflammation, and fever. It works by inhibiting the production of certain chemicals in the body that cause pain and inflammation.

Ivabradine is not a calcium channel blocker. It is a medication that works by reducing the heart rate without affecting the calcium channels. Calcium channel blockers, such as Verapamil, Amlodipine, Diltiazem, and Nifedipine, work by blocking the calcium channels in the heart and blood vessels, resulting in relaxation of the blood vessels and decreased heart rate.

Clopidogrel is not a glycoprotein 11b/111a inhibitor. It belongs to a different class of medications called P2Y12 inhibitors. Glycoprotein 11b/111a inhibitors, on the other hand, directly inhibit the glycoprotein receptors on platelets, preventing platelet aggregation. Abciximab, Tirofiban, and Eptifibatide are all examples of glycoprotein 11b/111a inhibitors. Therefore, Clopidogrel is the correct answer as it does not belong to this class of medications.

Beractant is the correct answer because it is a pulmonary surfactant. Pulmonary surfactants are substances that help reduce surface tension in the lungs, preventing the collapse of alveoli and allowing for easier breathing. Beractant is a type of pulmonary surfactant that is used in the treatment of respiratory distress syndrome in premature infants. It helps to improve lung function and prevent complications associated with immature lungs.

Colestyramine is a bile acid sequestrant. Bile acid sequestrants are medications that bind to bile acids in the intestines, preventing their reabsorption. This helps to lower cholesterol levels in the body as bile acids are made from cholesterol. Colestyramine is commonly used to treat high cholesterol and can also be used to relieve itching caused by liver disease.