Chemistry Chiropractic Boards Part 1

Glucose and fructose will form sucrose. Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule. The two monosaccharides are joined together through a glycosidic bond, resulting in the formation of sucrose.

The liver is directly involved in ketogenesis. Ketogenesis is the process by which ketone bodies are produced in the liver from fatty acids. These ketone bodies are then used as an alternative fuel source by the body when glucose levels are low, such as during periods of fasting or prolonged exercise. The liver plays a crucial role in this metabolic pathway, converting fatty acids into ketone bodies to provide energy for various tissues in the body.

Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that plays a crucial role in regulating blood sugar levels. When insulin is released into the bloodstream, it helps to lower blood sugar levels by allowing glucose to enter cells, where it can be used for energy. Therefore, the correct answer is "will lower blood sugar levels."

lactose = glucose + gaLACtose
maltose = glucose + glucose

Glycogen is the correct answer because it is the main storage form of glucose in animals. Glycogen is a polysaccharide made up of glucose molecules and is stored in the liver and muscles. When glucose levels in the body are low, glycogen is broken down into glucose to provide energy. Starch is the main storage form of glucose in plants, while lipids and proteins are not directly involved in glucose storage.

Major plasma proteins: albumin, fibrinogen, prothrombin, and the gamma globulins,
Immunoglbulin: protein produced by plasma cells and lymphocytes and characteristic of these types of cells... Immunoglobulins, quantitative serum IgA 68 - 378 mg/dL IgG 768 - 1632 mg/dL IgM 60 - 263 mg/dL IgE 10 - 180 IU/L
Gamma globulin: A protein fraction of blood serum containing many antibodies that protect against bacterial and viral infectious diseases.

with and without the use of oxygen!!!

Cyanocobalamin... pernicious anemia, combined systems disease, PLS

key phrase is lower blood sugar levels
remember that insulin is used to aid in the storage of glycogen into our adipose tissue!!!

In glycolysis, a 6-carbon molecule of glucose is split into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid. This is the correct answer because during glycolysis, glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic acid through a series of enzymatic reactions. This process occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and is the first step in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

THF = tetrahydrofolate!!!

Glycogenolysis refers to the breakdown of glycogen. Glycogen is a storage form of glucose in the body, primarily found in the liver and muscles. When the body needs glucose for energy, glycogenolysis is the process by which glycogen is broken down into glucose molecules. This glucose can then be used by the body for various metabolic processes, including providing energy to cells. Glycolysis, oxidation, and gluconeogenesis are not correct answers as they refer to different metabolic processes unrelated to the breakdown of glycogen.

A = (FS) visual, retinol, health of mucous membranes
B = WS) too many to list
D = (FS) calcium, 1,25 diOH cholecalciferol, Hydroxylation
E = (FS) antioxidant, cardiovascular problems, wheat germ, stored in adipose tissue
K= (FS) clotting, makes pro-thrombin in the liver

Vitamin C cannot be made from glucose in humans. Humans lack the enzyme required for the conversion of glucose into vitamin C, unlike most other animals. Therefore, humans must obtain vitamin C from dietary sources.

Riboflavin and niacin are involved in oxidative-reduction reactions. Oxidative-reduction reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another. Riboflavin and niacin act as coenzymes in these reactions, facilitating the transfer of electrons and participating in the conversion of energy. They are essential for various metabolic processes, including the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

anything without a phosphate group

In the process of glycolysis, two pyruvate molecules are formed. The enzyme responsible for the 10th step of this process is pyruvate kinase.

Copper is not an antioxidant because it does not have the ability to neutralize free radicals or prevent oxidative damage in the body. Antioxidants are substances that help protect cells from the harmful effects of free radicals, which are unstable molecules that can cause damage to cells and contribute to aging and diseases. Selenium, Vitamin A, and Vitamin E are all known antioxidants that play important roles in maintaining overall health and protecting against oxidative stress.

A deficiency of thiamine, also known as vitamin B1, can cause beriberi. Beriberi is a condition characterized by symptoms such as muscle weakness, nerve damage, fatigue, and cardiovascular problems. Thiamine is essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system and the metabolism of carbohydrates. Without enough thiamine, the body is unable to produce sufficient energy from glucose, leading to the symptoms of beriberi.

glycolysis... creating energy!!!

Folic acid is the correct answer because it plays a crucial role in the formation of purines, which are essential for the production of DNA and RNA. When there is a deficiency of folic acid, it can lead to megaloblastic anemia, a condition characterized by the production of abnormally large and immature red blood cells. Folic acid is important for proper cell division and growth, and its deficiency can result in impaired DNA synthesis and cell maturation, leading to the symptoms of megaloblastic anemia.

key: look at the answers given... the incorrect answer does not end in an "ic"

an enzyme that is attached to heparan sulfate proteoglycans on the surface of the capillary endothelium. As the chylomicrons pass through the capillaries, they bind to LPL

ATP is the correct answer because it is a high-energy molecule that can donate phosphate groups to other molecules. In step 1 and step 3 of certain biochemical reactions, phosphate groups are transferred to other molecules, and ATP is commonly used as the phosphate donor in these processes. NAD, DNA, and RNA do not have the ability to donate phosphate groups in the same way as ATP.

remember Pyridoxine is B6
*sideroblastic anemia (iron-loaded erythroblast)... but has normal serum levels

Coenzyme A is the correct answer because it is the coenzyme of pantothenic acid (B5). Coenzyme A plays a crucial role in various metabolic reactions, particularly in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids. It acts as a carrier molecule, transferring acetyl groups from one molecule to another. This process is essential for energy production and the synthesis of important molecules in the body. Therefore, coenzyme A is directly associated with pantothenic acid and its functions in cellular metabolism.

hexokinase is the 1st enzyme used!!!

Tryptophan can make most of our niacin requirements. Tryptophan is an amino acid that can be converted into niacin in the body. Niacin is an essential B vitamin that plays a crucial role in energy production, DNA repair, and the functioning of the nervous system. While it is important to consume niacin directly from dietary sources, the body can also utilize tryptophan to meet its niacin needs. This conversion process allows tryptophan to contribute to our overall niacin requirements.

Prostaglandins are derived from unsaturated fatty acids, specifically arachidonic acid. Linolenic, linoleic, and arachidonic acids are all unsaturated fatty acids that can be converted into prostaglandins. Palmitic acid, on the other hand, is a saturated fatty acid and cannot be converted into prostaglandins. Therefore, palmitic acid does not make prostaglandins.

When there are too many acetyl-CoA molecules in the liver, the process that will occur is ketogenesis. This is because excess acetyl-CoA cannot be efficiently metabolized through glycolysis or gluconeogenesis. Instead, it enters the pathway of ketogenesis, where it is converted into ketone bodies such as acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate. These ketone bodies can then be used as an alternative fuel source by various tissues, including the brain, during periods of prolonged fasting or low carbohydrate intake.

An excessive amount of ketones in the blood will decrease the pH of the blood. Ketones are produced when the body breaks down fat for energy instead of glucose. When there is a high level of ketones in the blood, it indicates a state of ketosis, which is often seen in conditions like uncontrolled diabetes or fasting. Ketones are acidic in nature, so an excess of ketones in the blood leads to an increase in acidity, resulting in a decrease in pH. This can disrupt the body's acid-base balance and potentially lead to complications if not addressed.

Deficiency:
ribioflavin: low in B2, Cheilosis, Magenta tongue
Niacin: low in B3, Pellagra, dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, death
pantothenic acid: low in B5, burning feet

remember the krebs cycle is glycolysis and begins with ATP.

Carnitine is not a ketone body. Ketone bodies are produced in the liver when there is a shortage of glucose, and they serve as an alternative fuel source for the brain and muscles. The three main ketone bodies are beta hydroxybutyrate, acetone, and acetoacetate. Carnitine, on the other hand, is an amino acid derivative that plays a role in the transport of fatty acids into the mitochondria for energy production. It is not involved in ketone body synthesis or metabolism.

they keyword in this question is GLYCOGEN, the breakdown of glycogen is glycogenolysis!!

Serine is a non-essential amino acid because it can be synthesized by the body from other amino acids. Non-essential amino acids are those that the body can produce on its own, so they do not need to be obtained from the diet. Valine, arginine, and histidine, on the other hand, are essential amino acids, meaning they must be obtained from the diet since the body cannot produce them.

add CO2... needed to make fats... anabolic reactions

Carnitine is needed to help palmitoyl CoA cross the mitochondrial membrane for beta oxidation to occur. This is because palmitoyl CoA cannot directly enter the mitochondria, so it must be transported by carnitine. Once inside the mitochondria, palmitoyl CoA can undergo beta oxidation, a process that breaks down fatty acids to produce energy. NADH2, FADH2, and Acetyl-CoA are all involved in the beta oxidation process but are not specifically required for palmitoyl CoA to cross the mitochondrial membrane.

key word is amino acids...

Branched chain definition: is an amino acid having aliphatic (acyclic or cyclic, non-aromatic carbon compounds) side-chains with a branch (a carbon atom bound to more than two other carbon atoms).

oxidative phosphorlation

B2, key word is riboFLAvin!!!! Here are all of the coenzymes: FAD, FADH2, FMN

holoenzyme: biochemically active compound formed by the combination of an enzyme with a coenzyme.
coenzyme A: A nonprotein compound necessary for the functioning of an enzyme.
cofactor: A substance (other than the substrate) essential for the activity of an enzyme.

All of the following are coenzymes for Niacin, B3: NAD+, NADH, NADP, NADPH

Acetyl-CoA is a molecule that is formed during the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in the body. It is a key molecule in energy metabolism and is involved in various biochemical reactions. Acetyl-CoA consists of two carbons, which are derived from the breakdown of glucose or fatty acids. Therefore, one molecule of acetyl-CoA has 2 carbons.

remember niacin is B3: tryptophan -->niacin, requires B6 (3ATP at electron transport)

Acetyl CoA is converted to malonyl CoA in the production of fatty acids by Acetyl CoA carboxylase. This enzyme plays a crucial role in fatty acid synthesis by catalyzing the carboxylation of Acetyl CoA to form malonyl CoA. This reaction is an important step in the biosynthesis of fatty acids, as malonyl CoA serves as a building block for the synthesis of longer fatty acid chains.

Ornithine is not composed of collagen. Collagen is a fibrous protein found in connective tissues, and it is made up of amino acids such as hydroxylysine, hydroxyproline, and glycine. Ornithine, on the other hand, is an amino acid that is not involved in the formation of collagen. It plays a role in the urea cycle, which is responsible for removing ammonia from the body.

oxidative carboxylations, needed for Krebs cycle

glycolysis: sugar breakdown
glyconeogenesis: aka gluconeogensis, formation of carbohydrates from non-carb sources