Chapter 10: Revolution And Enlightenment, 1550–1800 Chapter Overview

The Scientific Revolution, which occurred in the seventeenth century, led to the Enlightenment in the eighteenth century. The Enlightenment was a movement that emphasized the importance of reason, logic, and philosophy in improving society. During this time, thinkers and philosophers sought to apply scientific principles to various aspects of life, including politics, economics, and social issues. They believed that through reason and rationality, society could progress and achieve a better understanding of the world. The Enlightenment had a profound impact on Western civilization and laid the foundation for many of the democratic and liberal values that are still prevalent today.

The question is asking about the area in which numerous women made contributions. The phrase "breakthroughs in medicine and chemistry" suggests a scientific context. Therefore, it can be inferred that the correct answer is "scientific research."

Francis Bacon is the correct answer because he was an English philosopher who developed the scientific method. The scientific method is a systematic approach to collecting and analyzing evidence, which is crucial in the field of science. Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer known for his laws of planetary motion, but he did not develop the scientific method. Frederick the Great and Catherine the Great were monarchs in Prussia and Russia respectively, and they were not known for their contributions to the scientific method.

The correct answer is taxation. This is because British control over its colonies in North America started to weaken due to disputes over taxes. The British government imposed various taxes on the colonies, such as the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts, which were met with strong resistance from the colonists. They argued that they were being taxed without representation in the British Parliament, leading to widespread protests and eventually fueling the American Revolution. Therefore, taxation played a significant role in undermining British control and ultimately leading to the colonies' fight for independence.

The new view of the universe affected Western philosophy. This suggests that the changes in understanding and perception of the universe had a significant impact on the philosophical beliefs and ideas of the Western world. The advancements in scientific knowledge and the exploration of the cosmos likely influenced the way Western philosophers thought about the nature of existence, the role of humans in the universe, and other fundamental philosophical questions.

Nicholas Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei revolutionized astronomy. They made significant contributions to the field by challenging the prevailing geocentric model of the universe and proposing the heliocentric model. Copernicus developed the heliocentric theory, Kepler formulated the laws of planetary motion, and Galileo made groundbreaking observations with the telescope. Their work revolutionized our understanding of the cosmos and laid the foundation for modern astronomy.

During Copernicus' time, the Catholic Church held significant influence over scientific and religious beliefs. The idea that the sun, rather than the earth, was at the center of the universe contradicted the Church's teachings, which stated that the earth was the center. This concept challenged the Church's authority and was considered heretical, leading to opposition and condemnation from the Catholic Church.

During the Baroque and Classical periods, the works of Bach, Handel, Haydn, and Mozart flourished in Europe. These composers were instrumental in shaping European music and their compositions are considered some of the greatest in Western classical music history. Therefore, the correct answer is European music.

Portugal and Spain maintained control over their Latin American colonies for a significant period of time, lasting around 300 years. This suggests that their colonization efforts were relatively successful and they were able to establish and maintain political and economic dominance over these territories for an extended duration. This prolonged colonization had a profound impact on the culture, language, and society of these colonies, shaping their development and leaving lasting legacies that can still be observed today.

The given statement suggests that Spanish and Portuguese officials and Christian missionaries had significant influence in Latin American societies. This implies that these individuals and groups played important roles in shaping the social, cultural, and political aspects of Latin American societies. The answer "Latin American societies" accurately reflects this explanation.

The correct answer is "independence in 1776". The question states that multiple crises led the Americans to declare their independence and fight Britain until its defeat in 1783. This aligns with the historical event of the American Revolution, which began in 1776 with the signing of the Declaration of Independence.

Isaac Newton's explanations of gravity and the movement of the planets were equally revolutionary. Newton's laws of motion and universal gravitation laid the foundation for understanding the physical world and revolutionized our understanding of how objects move and interact with each other. His work on the laws of motion and the concept of gravity had a profound impact on the fields of physics and astronomy, and his explanations were groundbreaking in their ability to explain and predict the behavior of celestial bodies.

Salons were social gatherings in the 18th century where intellectuals, artists, and philosophers would come together to discuss and exchange ideas. These gatherings provided a platform for the spread of Enlightenment ideas among a wide range of people. The salon culture, combined with the increasing popularity of book and magazine publishing during this time, played a significant role in disseminating Enlightenment ideals to a broad audience.

The correct answer is Methodism of John Wesley. The desire for a more spiritual experience led to the emergence of new religious movements, one of which was Methodism. John Wesley, an Anglican cleric, founded the Methodist movement in the 18th century. Methodism emphasized personal piety, the importance of scripture, and the need for social justice. It sought to provide a more direct and experiential connection with God, appealing to those who felt unsatisfied with the established Church. Methodism grew rapidly and had a significant impact on religious life and social reform during the time.

The given statement suggests that the majority of Europeans during the mentioned time period were Christians. This implies that Christianity was the dominant religion in Europe at that time.

Novels attracted a middle-class audience because they were often written in a more accessible and relatable style compared to other literary forms like science or history. Novels provided a form of entertainment and escapism for the middle class, allowing them to explore different worlds, characters, and experiences. Additionally, novels often depicted the struggles and aspirations of the middle class, making them more relatable and appealing to this audience.

The Bill of Rights added important freedoms derived from the natural rights expressed by the philosophes. These freedoms encompassed various individual rights and liberties, such as freedom of speech, religion, assembly, and the right to bear arms. The Bill of Rights aimed to protect and guarantee these fundamental freedoms to the citizens, ensuring that their rights were not infringed upon by the government.

During the sixteenth century, Europeans started to challenge the scientific beliefs held by ancient authorities. They began to develop new theories and ideas about the universe. This suggests that the correct answer is "universe."

Catherine the Great of Russia and Frederick the Great of Prussia implemented reforms that were restricted in scope or extent. These reforms were not expansive or extensive, but rather had limitations or constraints. Therefore, the correct answer is "limited."

Britain lost its colonies in North America to the newly formed United States because of the American Revolutionary War. The colonists, who were unhappy with British rule and sought independence, fought against the British forces and eventually won their freedom. This resulted in the formation of the United States as a separate nation. On the other hand, Spain and Portugal were able to hold onto their profitable Latin American colonies, as they did not face significant independence movements during this time.

Rene Descartes, the Frenchman mentioned in the question, is known as the first rationalist. He believed that matter could be studied and understood through the use of reason. Descartes was a philosopher and mathematician who emphasized the importance of logical thinking and deductive reasoning in understanding the world. His famous statement "I think, therefore I am" reflects his belief in the power of reason and independent investigation of matter.

The given statement suggests that France lost its territories in India and North America, while Britain emerged as the dominant power. This implies that Britain became a significant force in terms of colonization, exerting control over various regions and expanding its empire. Therefore, the correct answer is "colonial power."

In the sixteenth century, Portugal came to control Brazil, while Spain established an empire in the Western Hemisphere that included parts of North America and most of Latin America.

During Colonial Empires and the American Revolution, the colonizers profited richly by exporting Latin American gold, silver, and other natural resources. Additionally, they also exported farm products from Latin America, which contributed to their economic gains. These farm products could include crops such as tobacco, sugar, cotton, and indigo, which were in high demand in Europe. The export of farm products helped fuel the economic growth of the colonial powers and played a significant role in their wealth accumulation during this period.

The Scientific Revolution gave rise to an intellectual movement—the Enlightenment. Enlightenment thinkers were heavily influenced by the scientific discoveries and methods of the Scientific Revolution, which emphasized reason, logic, and empirical evidence. These ideas provided the philosophical foundations for the American Revolution, as the American colonists sought to apply Enlightenment principles of individual rights, liberty, and limited government in their fight for independence.

During the later Enlightenment, social thinkers emerged who advocated for various social reforms, including women's rights. One of these influential figures was Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The correct answer, Mary Wollstonecraft, is known as an early advocate of women's rights during this period. She wrote the groundbreaking book "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" in 1792, arguing for equal education and opportunities for women. Wollstonecraft's ideas greatly contributed to the development of feminist thought and had a lasting impact on the women's rights movement.

The Articles of Confederation were the initial governing document of the United States after gaining independence from Britain. However, they proved to be weak and ineffective in establishing a strong central government. As a result, the Constitution was created to replace the Articles of Confederation and establish a more powerful central government. The Constitution provided a framework for the organization of the government, defined the powers of the branches, and established a system of checks and balances.

During the Enlightenment, absolutist rulers in Europe were interested in the ideas and philosophies that emerged during this period. These rulers saw the Enlightenment as an opportunity to consolidate and strengthen their power by implementing reforms and policies that were influenced by the principles of reason, individual rights, and limited government. They sought to modernize their countries and promote progress in various aspects of society, including education, law, and governance. Therefore, Europe is the correct answer as it was in this continent where the Enlightenment had the most significant impact on absolutist rulers.

The correct answer is Methodism of John Wesley. Methodism was a new religious movement that emerged in the 18th century as a response to the desire for a more spiritual experience. John Wesley, an Anglican cleric, played a significant role in founding and shaping Methodism. He emphasized personal piety, social justice, and the importance of religious experience. Methodism grew rapidly and became a distinct denomination within Christianity, known for its emphasis on spiritual discipline and social activism.

The correct answer is Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot. These three individuals were prominent figures of the Enlightenment period in Europe. They were known for their influential ideas and writings that challenged traditional authority and promoted reason, tolerance, and individual freedom. The salons of the upper classes provided a space for intellectuals to gather and discuss these ideas, making Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot key figures in these discussions.

Adam Smith is the correct answer because he is widely recognized as the founder of modern economics and a key figure in the development of laissez-faire economics. Smith's book "The Wealth of Nations" advocated for minimal government intervention in the economy and emphasized the importance of free markets and individual self-interest in driving economic growth and prosperity. His ideas greatly influenced economic thought and policy, making him the most fitting choice for the individual who put forth the doctrine of laissez-faire economics in the economic sphere.

Enlightenment intellectuals, known as philosophes, were chiefly social reformers from the nobility and the middle class. The nobility refers to the upper class, while the middle class refers to the socioeconomic group between the upper and lower classes. The inclusion of the middle class in the answer suggests that these intellectuals came from a diverse range of backgrounds and were not solely from the nobility. They sought to challenge traditional ideas and promote social change, making them important figures in the Enlightenment movement.

The correct answer is neoclassical because it is mentioned in the question that the baroque style of art endured, while a more delicate style called rococo emerged. This suggests that the rococo style came after the baroque style, indicating a chronological progression. Neoclassical, being a style that emerged after the rococo period, fits this progression. The other options, colonial power, classical, and methodism, do not align with the context provided in the question.

Joseph II of Austria attempted far-reaching reforms based on Enlightenment ideas; they were largely a failure. This can be seen in his policies such as religious tolerance, abolishing serfdom, and implementing a more centralized government. However, these reforms faced strong opposition from the nobility and clergy, leading to their limited success. Additionally, Joseph's attempts to modernize the military and expand the empire also faced significant challenges. Overall, despite his intentions to bring about progressive changes, Joseph II's reforms were met with resistance and ultimately did not achieve their desired goals.

The correct answer is "War of Austrian Succession." The sentence suggests that territorial disputes in Europe and in the colonial empires of Britain and France led to a war, which was followed by the Seven Years' War. The War of Austrian Succession fits this context as it was a conflict that arose from disputes over the inheritance of the Austrian throne and involved various European powers, including Britain and France.

During the Enlightenment, there was a shift in thinking towards reason, logic, and individual rights. This intellectual movement had a profound impact on various aspects of society, including art and politics. Artists began to use their work as a means of expressing political and social ideas, challenging traditional norms and advocating for change. Similarly, political thinkers and philosophers of the time, such as John Locke and Voltaire, promoted ideas of democracy, liberty, and equality, which influenced political systems and policies. Therefore, the Enlightenment had a significant influence on both art and politics.