Anatomy II Quiz 1

The blood performs multiple functions in the body. It transports gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, to and from the cells. It also transports nutrients and wastes, ensuring that the body's cells receive necessary nutrients and that waste products are removed. Additionally, the blood helps regulate body temperature by transporting heat throughout the body. Lastly, the blood plays a crucial role in the immune system, defending against toxins and pathogens by carrying immune cells and antibodies to fight off infections. Therefore, the correct answer is "all of the above."

Prolactin is the pituitary hormone that stimulates milk production by the mammary glands. It is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and plays a crucial role in lactation. Prolactin stimulates the development of mammary glands during pregnancy and promotes the production of milk after childbirth. It also inhibits the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which helps to suppress ovulation and prevent pregnancy while breastfeeding. Therefore, prolactin is the correct answer to this question.

The correct answer is "all of the above" because hormones can indeed be divided into different groups based on their chemistry. Amino acid derivatives, peptides, eicosanoids, and steroids are all examples of different types of hormones. Amino acid derivatives are hormones derived from amino acids, peptides are hormones made up of chains of amino acids, eicosanoids are hormones derived from fatty acids, and steroids are hormones derived from cholesterol. Therefore, all of these categories are valid classifications for hormones.

The interstitial cells of the testes are responsible for producing testosterone. Testosterone is a hormone that plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of male reproductive tissues, including the testes and prostate. It is also involved in the development of secondary sexual characteristics, such as muscle mass, bone density, and facial hair growth. Testosterone is essential for sperm production and plays a role in regulating libido and overall sexual function in males.

Hormone release may be controlled by any of the factors mentioned. The blood level of an ion like potassium, the blood level of glucose, and nervous stimuli can all influence hormone release. Additionally, the blood level of hormones themselves can also regulate hormone release. Therefore, any of these factors can play a role in controlling hormone release.

TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) is the pituitary hormone that triggers the release of thyroid hormone from the thyroid gland. TSH acts on the thyroid gland to stimulate the production and release of thyroid hormones, specifically thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These hormones play a crucial role in regulating metabolism, growth, and development in the body.

Endocrine cells release their secretions directly into body fluids, such as blood or lymph, which allows the hormones they produce to be transported throughout the body. This is in contrast to exocrine cells, which release their secretions onto epithelial surfaces, such as the skin or digestive tract. The direct release into body fluids allows the hormones to reach their target cells and initiate physiological responses.

Hormonal actions on cells can affect quantities of enzymes, synthesis of enzymes, and activities of enzymes. This means that hormones can regulate the production, release, and function of enzymes in cells. Hormones can either increase or decrease the amount of enzymes present, stimulate or inhibit the synthesis of enzymes, and enhance or suppress the activities of enzymes. Therefore, the correct answer is "any of the above".

Anemia is a condition in which the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is reduced. It is characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells or a decrease in the amount of hemoglobin in the blood. This can result in symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath. Anemia can be caused by various factors including nutritional deficiencies, chronic diseases, and genetic disorders. Treatment for anemia depends on the underlying cause and may involve dietary changes, supplementation, or medical interventions.

Excess secretion of growth hormone during early development can lead to gigantism. Gigantism is a condition characterized by excessive growth and height, usually caused by a tumor in the pituitary gland that produces an excess amount of growth hormone. This condition typically occurs before the closure of the growth plates, resulting in the individual growing taller than their genetic potential. It is different from acromegaly, which occurs after the growth plates have closed and is characterized by excessive growth of the hands, feet, and facial features.

Calcitonin is a hormone that can lower blood levels of calcium ions. It does this by inhibiting the release of calcium from bones and increasing the excretion of calcium by the kidneys. This helps to regulate calcium levels in the blood and prevent them from becoming too high. Oxytocin, thyroxine, glucagon, and parathyroid hormone do not have the same effect on blood calcium levels.

The correct answer is ADH, which stands for antidiuretic hormone. The posterior pituitary gland secretes ADH, which plays a crucial role in regulating water balance in the body. ADH acts on the kidneys, causing them to reabsorb water and reduce urine production, thus preventing excessive water loss. This hormone is essential for maintaining proper hydration and preventing dehydration.

Pinealocytes are cells found in the pineal gland, and one of their main functions is to produce melatonin. Melatonin is a hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and is responsible for maintaining the body's circadian rhythm. It is produced in response to darkness and helps to promote sleep. Therefore, the correct answer is melatonin.

The cell labeled "7" is a platelet. Platelets are small, irregularly shaped cell fragments that play a crucial role in blood clotting. They are derived from large cells in the bone marrow called megakaryocytes. Platelets help to prevent excessive bleeding by forming a plug at the site of a damaged blood vessel.

Extracellular membrane receptors are used by catecholamines, peptide hormones, and eicosanoids. These hormones are unable to pass through the cell membrane and therefore bind to receptors on the cell surface. This binding triggers a signal cascade within the cell, leading to various cellular responses. Thyroid hormones, on the other hand, are able to pass through the cell membrane and therefore use intracellular receptors to exert their effects. Therefore, the correct answer is a, b, and c.

The hypothalamus is responsible for regulating various endocrine functions in the body. It controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland, which in turn regulates the functions of other endocrine glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and pancreas. The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and coordinating the body's response to stress, temperature, hunger, and thirst. Its complex interactions with other endocrine glands make it the most involved and intricate component of the endocrine system.

Mental and physical sluggishness and low body temperature are common symptoms of hypothyroidism. This condition occurs when the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormones, which are responsible for regulating metabolism and energy levels in the body. The lack of these hormones can lead to a decrease in mental and physical activity, as well as a drop in body temperature. Therefore, hypothyroidism is the most likely explanation for these symptoms.

FSH, or follicle-stimulating hormone, is the correct answer. FSH is a pituitary hormone that plays a crucial role in promoting egg development in the ovaries and sperm development in the testes. In females, FSH stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles, which contain the developing eggs. In males, FSH stimulates the production of sperm cells in the testes. Therefore, FSH is essential for the reproductive processes in both males and females.

ADH, also known as antidiuretic hormone, is produced by the pituitary gland and plays a crucial role in regulating water balance in the body. When the body is dehydrated, ADH is released, causing the kidneys to reabsorb more water from the urine and reducing water loss. This helps to conserve water and prevent dehydration. Therefore, ADH is the correct answer as it directly influences the kidney to reduce water loss.

The hypothalamus controls secretion by the adenohypophysis by secreting releasing and inhibiting factors into a tiny portal system. This system allows the hypothalamus to release specific hormones that either stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones from the adenohypophysis. These releasing and inhibiting factors are transported through the portal system directly to the anterior pituitary, where they regulate the secretion of hormones. This mechanism provides a precise and efficient way for the hypothalamus to control hormone secretion and maintain homeostasis in the body.

All of the hormones listed (thyroid, growth hormone, calcitriol, and insulin) play a role in proper growth. The thyroid hormone regulates metabolism and growth, while growth hormone promotes bone and muscle growth. Calcitriol is important for the absorption of calcium, which is necessary for bone growth. Insulin, produced by the pancreas, regulates blood sugar levels and also plays a role in growth. Therefore, all of these hormones are required for proper growth.

Granulocytes, a type of white blood cell, are formed in the red bone marrow. This is where hematopoiesis, the process of blood cell formation, takes place. Red bone marrow is found in the spongy bone tissue of certain bones, such as the sternum, ribs, and pelvis. It is responsible for producing various types of blood cells, including granulocytes, which play a crucial role in the immune response by fighting against infections and foreign substances in the body.

Erythropoiesis is the process of producing red blood cells. In adults, this process primarily occurs in the red bone marrow. The red bone marrow is responsible for producing all types of blood cells, including red blood cells. The liver, yellow bone marrow, lymphoid tissue, and the spleen do not play a significant role in erythropoiesis in adults.

The nervous system is responsible for coordinating and controlling the body's activities. It communicates through the release of neurotransmitters, responds with motor output, responds rapidly to stimuli, and responds specifically to stimuli. However, it does not function independently as it relies on various organs and systems to carry out its functions.

Parathyroid hormone is the hormone that does the opposite of calcitonin. Calcitonin is responsible for decreasing blood calcium levels, while parathyroid hormone works to increase blood calcium levels. It does this by stimulating the release of calcium from bones, increasing calcium absorption in the intestines, and reducing calcium excretion in the kidneys. Therefore, parathyroid hormone acts in opposition to calcitonin by increasing blood calcium levels.

Peptide hormones are composed of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. These hormones are made up of chains of amino acids that are linked together by peptide bonds. This structure allows them to interact with specific receptors in target cells and initiate various physiological responses in the body. Peptide hormones play important roles in regulating various processes such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction. They are distinct from other types of hormones, such as steroid hormones, which are chemically related to cholesterol.

The functional organization of the nervous system parallels that of the endocrine system in many ways. Both systems are involved in regulating and coordinating bodily functions. The nervous system uses electrical signals to transmit information quickly, while the endocrine system uses hormones to send chemical signals more slowly. Both systems work together to maintain homeostasis and respond to internal and external stimuli. Additionally, both systems have specialized structures (neurons and glands) that release substances to communicate with target cells or tissues.

The correct answer is 4 months. Red blood cells have a lifespan of approximately 120 days, which is equivalent to 4 months. This is because red blood cells do not have a nucleus and cannot repair themselves, leading to their eventual breakdown and removal from the body.

The presence of specific glycoproteins on the cell membrane is the correct answer because blood type is determined by the presence or absence of certain antigens on the surface of red blood cells. These antigens are glycoproteins, which are proteins with attached carbohydrate molecules. Different blood types have different combinations of these antigens, which can be detected through blood typing tests. Therefore, the presence of specific glycoproteins on the cell membrane is a key factor in determining a person's blood type.

Aldosterone is a hormone that helps regulate the sodium ion content of the body. It is produced by the adrenal glands and acts on the kidneys to increase the reabsorption of sodium and the excretion of potassium. This helps to maintain the balance of electrolytes in the body and regulate blood pressure.

The cell labeled "2" in the given options is a neutrophil. Neutrophils are a type of white blood cell that play a crucial role in the immune system's response to infections. They are the most abundant type of white blood cell and are known for their ability to quickly migrate to the site of infection and engulf and destroy invading pathogens. Neutrophils are characterized by their multi-lobed nucleus and granular cytoplasm.

The heart is known to secrete hormones such as ANP and BNP, which are involved in regulating blood pressure and fluid balance. Thymosin is a hormone produced by the thymus gland, not the heart. Thyroxine is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland, not the heart. Therefore, the correct answer is "both A and D" because ANP and thyroxine are not secreted by the heart.

Whole blood has a viscosity that is higher than water. Viscosity refers to the thickness or resistance to flow of a liquid. Whole blood contains various components such as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma, which contribute to its higher viscosity compared to water. The viscosity of whole blood is essential for its proper functioning in the body, as it allows for efficient circulation and transport of oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.

The most abundant component of plasma is water. Plasma is the liquid portion of blood and it makes up about 55% of the total blood volume. Water is essential for maintaining the volume and composition of blood, as well as transporting nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body. While proteins, gases, nutrients, ions, and other substances are also present in plasma, water is the main component that makes up the majority of its composition.

Aged and damaged erythrocytes are broken down by the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. The liver plays a crucial role in removing old and damaged red blood cells from circulation and breaking them down. The spleen also helps in removing old red blood cells and breaking them down. The bone marrow, where new blood cells are produced, also plays a role in removing and breaking down old and damaged red blood cells. Therefore, all three options A, B, and C are correct.

Norepinephrine and epinephrine are considered hormones when released into the bloodstream because they are produced by the adrenal glands and have a widespread effect on various target organs and tissues throughout the body. However, when released into synapses, they act as neurotransmitters because they function in the transmission of signals between nerve cells in the nervous system.

The cell labeled "6" is a lymphocyte.

The structure known as corpus luteum secretes progesterone. Progesterone is a hormone that plays a crucial role in the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. It helps prepare the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg and maintains the uterine lining during pregnancy. The corpus luteum is a temporary endocrine structure that forms in the ovary after ovulation. It produces progesterone to support the early stages of pregnancy. Therefore, progesterone is the correct answer in this context.

Neutrophils are the most numerous white blood cells in peripheral circulation. They play a crucial role in the immune system by engulfing and destroying bacteria and other foreign substances. They are highly mobile and are the first responders to infection or inflammation. Neutrophils are characterized by their multi-lobed nucleus and granules in their cytoplasm. They are also involved in the process of inflammation and can release toxic substances to kill pathogens.

The neurons of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus are responsible for manufacturing ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and oxytocin. ADH acts on the kidneys to regulate water balance in the body, while oxytocin plays a role in labor and childbirth, as well as in milk production and breastfeeding. These hormones are released by the posterior pituitary gland, which is connected to the hypothalamus.

The pituitary gland consists of two lobes - the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe produces six hormones: growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and prolactin. The posterior lobe produces two hormones: oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone. Therefore, the two lobes of the pituitary gland together produce a total of eight hormones.

The combination of plasma and formed elements refers to the components that make up whole blood. Plasma is the liquid portion of blood that contains proteins, electrolytes, and other substances, while formed elements include red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Together, these components make up whole blood, which is responsible for transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body.

Platelets are small, disc-shaped cells that are responsible for blood clotting. They are formed by a process called budding or pinching off from giant multinucleated cells in the bone marrow called megakaryocytes. Megakaryocytes have multiple nuclei and are able to produce thousands of platelets by extending long tendrils called proplatelets into the blood vessels. These proplatelets then break off into individual platelets, which are released into the bloodstream to perform their clotting function. Other options like normoblasts, erythroblasts, lymphoblasts, and myeloblasts are not involved in the production of platelets.

Renin is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). It is responsible for the activation of angiotensin, a hormone that regulates blood pressure and fluid balance in the body. When renin is released by the kidneys, it converts angiotensinogen (a protein produced by the liver) into angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is then converted into angiotensin II by the enzyme angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). Angiotensin II causes blood vessels to constrict and stimulates the release of aldosterone, which increases sodium and water reabsorption in the kidneys. This ultimately leads to an increase in blood pressure.

The chemical reaction between thyroglobulin and iodine takes place in the lumen of the thyroid follicle.

Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells that still contain remnants of ribosomes. They are released into the bloodstream from the bone marrow during the final stages of erythrocyte development. Once in the circulation, reticulocytes mature into fully functional erythrocytes, which do not contain ribosomes. Therefore, reticulocytes are the correct answer as they represent the developmental stage at which erythrocytes enter the circulation.

Changes in blood osmotic pressure would most affect the secretion of ADH (antidiuretic hormone). ADH helps regulate the body's water balance by controlling the amount of water reabsorbed by the kidneys. When blood osmotic pressure increases, indicating dehydration or high salt concentration, ADH is released to increase water reabsorption and decrease urine output, conserving water in the body. Conversely, when blood osmotic pressure decreases, indicating overhydration or low salt concentration, ADH secretion is inhibited, leading to increased urine output and water loss. Therefore, changes in blood osmotic pressure have a direct impact on the secretion of ADH.

Steroid hormones bind to receptors in the nucleus of their target cells. This is because steroid hormones are lipid-soluble molecules that can easily diffuse through the cell membranes. Once inside the cell, they bind to specific receptors located in the nucleus. This hormone-receptor complex then acts as a transcription factor, directly influencing gene expression and protein synthesis. This binding and activation of receptors in the nucleus is essential for the biological effects of steroid hormones.

Oxytocin is not produced by the pars distalis of the adenohypophysis. It is produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary gland. The other hormones listed (FSH, corticotropin, TSH, and somatotropin) are all produced by the pars distalis of the adenohypophysis.

Gap junctions are specialized protein channels that allow for direct communication between adjacent cells. They play a crucial role in coordinating various cellular activities. In the context of the given options, gap junctions are involved in coordinating ciliary movement among epithelial cells, facilitating the propagation of action potentials at electrical synapses, and coordinating the contractions of cardiac muscle cells. Therefore, the correct answer is "all of the above" as all the statements are true.