Psychology 101 Exam 2 Study Guide

The correct answer is Narcolepsy, Sleep Apnea, Night Terrors. These are examples of different sleep disorders. Narcolepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden attacks of sleep. Sleep Apnea is a condition where a person's breathing is interrupted during sleep, leading to poor sleep quality. Night Terrors are episodes of intense fear and panic during sleep, often accompanied by screaming and flailing. These disorders can disrupt normal sleep patterns and cause various symptoms and health issues.

Active learning requires engagement because it involves the learner actively participating and interacting with the learning material. This type of learning requires the learner to think critically, ask questions, and apply what they have learned. It often involves hands-on activities, discussions, problem-solving, and collaboration with others. Active learning promotes a deeper understanding of the subject matter and helps learners develop important skills such as critical thinking, communication, and problem-solving skills.

Passive learning refers to a type of learning where the individual is not actively engaged or participating in the learning process. It involves acquiring knowledge or skills through observation, listening, or reading without actively interacting or applying the information. In passive learning, the learner is more of a recipient of information rather than an active participant. This type of learning is often associated with traditional classroom lectures or watching educational videos, where the learner absorbs information without actively engaging in discussions or hands-on activities.

The three tasks of memory are encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding refers to the process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory. Storage involves the retention of encoded information over time. Retrieval is the process of accessing and recalling stored information when needed. This answer accurately identifies and lists all three tasks of memory.

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Marijuana is considered a hallucinogen because it contains a psychoactive compound called delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which can alter perception, mood, and cognition. When consumed, THC binds to specific receptors in the brain, leading to hallucinatory effects such as distorted perception of time, heightened sensory experiences, and changes in mood and thinking. While marijuana also has other effects, such as relaxation and pain relief, its hallucinogenic properties make it distinct from substances like valium, GHB, and Rohypnol, which belong to different drug classifications.

The fish gathering in the corner where food is routinely placed demonstrates stimulus control. This means that the fish have associated the turning on of the aquarium light with the presence of food, and they have learned to respond to this specific stimulus. The presence of the light serves as a cue for the fish to gather in the corner, as they have learned that food is likely to be placed there. This behavior shows that the fish's actions are under the control of the stimulus (the light) and the learned association with food.

Depressants are drugs that slow down the central nervous system, resulting in relaxation, sedation, and reduced brain activity. The drugs listed in the answer (Alcohol, Barbiturates, Tranquilizers, and Opiates) are all examples of depressants. Alcohol is a commonly used depressant that can cause relaxation and impaired judgment. Barbiturates are prescription drugs used to treat anxiety and sleep disorders, but they can also be abused for their sedative effects. Tranquilizers, such as morphine, are used to relieve pain and induce relaxation. Opiates, like heroin and prescription painkillers, are highly addictive and also have depressant effects on the body.

LSD and marijuana are considered hallucinogens because they alter a person's perception, thoughts, and feelings. LSD, also known as acid, is a powerful hallucinogenic drug that can cause visual and auditory hallucinations. Marijuana, on the other hand, contains THC, which can also produce hallucinogenic effects, although they are generally milder compared to LSD. Both drugs are commonly used recreationally for their hallucinogenic properties.

When you try to remember the psychology material that you studied, the memory process being used is retrieval. Retrieval refers to the process of accessing and recalling information from long-term memory. In this case, you are actively trying to retrieve and recall the information that you have previously encoded and stored in your memory. This process involves searching for and bringing forth the relevant information from your memory stores.

In this classic experiment, Little Albert was initially conditioned to be afraid of a white rat. However, he also developed fear responses to other similar stimuli, including white furry rabbits and bearded men. This demonstrates stimulus generalization, as Little Albert generalized his fear response to stimuli that were similar to the original conditioned stimulus (the white rat).

Circadian rhythms are controlled by our biological clocks and can cause interference like jet lag or insomnia. These rhythms are the natural, internal processes that regulate our sleep-wake cycle and other physiological functions over a 24-hour period. They are influenced by external cues such as light and darkness, and disruptions to these rhythms can lead to sleep disturbances and other health issues. Therefore, circadian rhythms are the correct answer to the question.

Retinal disparity refers to the difference in the images that each eye receives, resulting in slightly different views of the world. This difference in perspective allows us to perceive depth and three-dimensional objects. Accommodation refers to the adjustment of the lens in the eye to focus on objects at different distances. Interposition refers to the overlap of objects, where one object appears to be in front of another. Convergence refers to the inward movement of the eyes when focusing on nearby objects.

Sigmund Freud believed that dreams are based on wish fulfillment, where unconscious desires and conflicts are disguised as dream symbols. According to Freud, dreams serve as a way for the unconscious mind to express repressed desires and wishes that are not acceptable to the conscious mind. Through dream analysis, Freud believed that these hidden meanings and symbols could be uncovered, providing insight into the individual's unconscious desires and conflicts.

Children tend to act as if parents give them the message, "Do as I do, not as I say," because of the powerful effect of modeling. Modeling refers to the process in which children learn and imitate behaviors by observing others, particularly their parents or caregivers. Children are more likely to replicate behaviors they observe in their immediate environment, rather than simply following verbal instructions. Therefore, the influence of modeling plays a significant role in shaping children's behavior and attitudes.

Transduction refers to the process of transforming physical energy into electrochemical energy, specifically in the form of action potentials. This process occurs in sensory systems, where sensory receptors convert various forms of energy (such as light, sound, or pressure) into electrical signals that can be transmitted and interpreted by the nervous system. By undergoing transduction, the physical energy is converted into a language that the brain can understand, allowing us to perceive and make sense of our environment.

A neutral stimulus (NS) refers to an occurrence that currently does not produce a response when it is presented. In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to eventually elicit a conditioned response (CR). Initially, the neutral stimulus does not elicit any response, but through repeated pairing with the UCS, it becomes associated with the UCS and eventually elicits a response on its own, becoming a conditioned stimulus (CS). Therefore, the correct answer explains that a neutral stimulus is an occurrence that does not currently produce a response when presented.

The trichromatic theory is a theory of color vision that states that there are three types of cones in the human eye that are responsible for perceiving color: red, green, and blue. These cones are sensitive to different wavelengths of light and work together to allow us to see a wide range of colors. According to this theory, our perception of color is based on the relative activation of these three types of cones in response to different wavelengths of light.

The trichromatic theory of color vision applies to the retina, explaining how cones in the eye respond to different wavelengths of light and enable us to perceive color. On the other hand, the opponent-process theory of color vision explains what happens in the optic pathways and the brain after the information leaves the eye. It suggests that color perception is based on opposing pairs of colors, such as red-green and blue-yellow.

Short-term memory (STM) is a type of memory that has a limited capacity and duration. It is responsible for temporarily holding and processing information. The statement "Once information is placed in STM, it is permanently stored" is false. In STM, information is only held for a short period of time, typically around 30 seconds, unless it is actively rehearsed or transferred to long-term memory. If the information is not rehearsed or transferred, it will be forgotten. Therefore, STM does not permanently store information.

The unconditioned response (UR) refers to the response that is naturally and automatically triggered by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). This means that the UR is not learned or conditioned, but rather it occurs instinctively. For example, if a person smells food (UCS), their mouth may start to water (UR) without any prior conditioning.

Classical conditioning involves learning through an association of stimuli, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus to elicit a specific response. On the other hand, operant conditioning involves learning by consequences, where behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on the positive or negative consequences they produce. Therefore, the given answer correctly identifies classical conditioning as learning through an association of stimuli and operant conditioning as learning by consequences.

One way to help Hannah with her memorization difficulties for her anatomy class is to explain the use of mnemonics to her. Mnemonics are techniques or strategies that aid in memory retrieval by associating information with easier-to-remember cues or patterns. By using mnemonic devices, such as acronyms, visualization, or rhymes, Hannah can create mental shortcuts that make it easier for her to recall and retain the information she needs for her anatomy class.

Habituation refers to a decrease in perceptual response to a repeated stimulus. This means that over time, an individual becomes less responsive or attentive to a stimulus that they have encountered repeatedly. This process allows the individual to filter out irrelevant or unimportant stimuli and focus on more relevant or novel ones. Habituation is a common phenomenon observed in both humans and animals and plays an important role in the efficient allocation of attention and cognitive resources.

The given answer is semantic; episodic. Semantic memory refers to the memory of general knowledge and facts, such as historical events. Episodic memory, on the other hand, refers to the memory of specific personal experiences, such as what you had for breakfast this morning. Therefore, the analogy suggests that memories of historical facts are to semantic memory as memories of breakfast are to episodic memory.

Encoding failure refers to the inability to properly store or retrieve information in memory due to a failure in the initial encoding process. In this case, the person was unable to encode the information about which way Lincoln's head faces on a penny, leading to a memory failure and the inability to answer the question correctly.

A conditioned stimulus (CS) refers to a previously neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a response. Through repeated association with the UCS, the CS acquires the ability to produce the same response as the UCS. This process is known as classical conditioning and is a fundamental concept in behavioral psychology.

B.F. Skinner developed a conditioning apparatus for animals and provided various practical applications of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow it. Skinner's apparatus, known as the Skinner box, allowed him to study and manipulate the behavior of animals, particularly rats and pigeons. His work demonstrated the principles of reinforcement and punishment, and he applied these principles to practical situations such as education, therapy, and even animal training. Skinner's contributions to the field of psychology revolutionized the understanding of behavior and learning.

The correct answer is cones. Cones are photoreceptor cells located in the fovea of the eye, which is responsible for sharp central vision. Cones are specialized for color vision and high visual acuity, allowing the receiver to see the football clearly as it spirals down towards him. The concentration of cones in the fovea enhances his ability to perceive fine details and colors accurately.

Stage 1 in sleep cycles is considered to be characterized by theta waves with slower frequency and greater amplitude. Theta waves are brain waves that are present during light sleep and are associated with drowsiness and relaxation. In stage 1, the brain transitions from being awake to falling asleep, and theta waves become more prominent. The slower frequency and greater amplitude of theta waves indicate a deeper state of relaxation and a transition towards deeper stages of sleep.

Agricultural workers being paid according to the number of barrels of apples they pick suggests that their pay is based on a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement. This means that they receive a specific amount of payment for each unit of work completed (in this case, each barrel of apples picked). The more barrels they pick, the more they get paid, creating a direct relationship between their behavior (picking apples) and the reinforcement (payment).

Explicit memories are conscious memories that can be intentionally recalled or recognized. These memories are formed through conscious effort and are usually associated with facts, events, and personal experiences. In contrast, implicit memories are unconscious memories that are formed without conscious awareness and are often related to skills, habits, and conditioned responses. Primed memories refer to the activation of specific information or concepts in memory, which can influence subsequent thoughts and behaviors. Eidetic memories, also known as photographic memories, involve the ability to vividly recall visual information. Therefore, the correct answer for this question is explicit, as recall, recognition, and tests in school rely on conscious and intentional retrieval of information.

A conditional response (CR) refers to the response that is made to the conditioned stimulus. In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response. Over time, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, and the response it elicits is known as the conditional response. This response is learned and is not naturally produced by the conditioned stimulus alone.

Stage 2 in sleep cycles is characterized by theta waves, which are slower in frequency but have greater amplitude. Additionally, during this stage, there is a sudden increase in wave frequency known as sleep spindles. This stage also involves 50% less delta waves, which have the slowest frequency and highest amplitude. Furthermore, sleepers in stage 2 are difficult to wake up due to the presence of 50% more delta waves.

Top-down processing refers to the cognitive process in which our prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences influence our perception of sensory information. In this process, perception is initiated by cognitive processing, meaning that our brain uses existing knowledge and expectations to interpret and make sense of sensory input. This differs from bottom-up processing, where perception is initiated by sensory input itself. Therefore, the answer "Initiated by cognitive processing, perception -> sensation" correctly explains the concept of top-down processing.

This scenario describes vicarious classical conditioning, as the child learns to be afraid of spiders by observing his parents' highly emotional and negative response to them. Vicarious conditioning involves learning through observation of others' experiences, rather than through direct personal experiences. The child is acquiring a fear response to spiders by witnessing the negative emotions displayed by his parents, which is a form of vicarious learning.

In this example, the sound of the flushing toilet has become associated with the scalding hot water in the shower through repeated experiences. As a result, the college students have developed an involuntary twitch whenever they hear the sound of a flushing toilet. This twitch is a learned response that is triggered by the conditioned stimulus, which is the sound of the flushing toilet. Therefore, the correct answer is conditioned stimulus (CS).

Praise, approval, affection, and money are considered secondary reinforcers because they acquire their reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers. Unlike primary reinforcers such as food or water, which have innate value, secondary reinforcers gain their value through learned associations. For example, money becomes reinforcing because it is associated with obtaining primary reinforcers such as food or shelter. Similarly, praise, approval, and affection become reinforcing because they are associated with positive social interactions and feelings of acceptance.

Intermediate processing refers to the stage in information processing where the stimulus is recognized and labeled. This type of processing involves analyzing and categorizing the incoming information based on its meaning and relevance. It is considered a higher level of processing compared to shallow or low-level processing, which involve more basic and superficial analysis of the stimulus. Intermediate processing is crucial for understanding and interpreting the stimulus in a meaningful way.

After quitting alcohol, alcoholics may experience REM rebound, which refers to an increase in the amount and intensity of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Alcohol suppresses REM sleep, so when alcoholics stop drinking, their brain tries to compensate for the lost REM sleep by increasing its duration and intensity. This can lead to vivid and intense dreams, which may be perceived as terrible nightmares.

The correct answer is "inconscious." This is because "inconscious" is not a recognized level of awareness. The other options, such as "higher level," "subconscious," and "no awareness," are all valid levels of awareness that can be experienced by an individual.

Research on the effectiveness of hypnosis in solving crimes has shown that hypnosis can lead to an increase in pseudo-memories. This occurs when the person undergoing hypnosis fills in memory gaps with their imagination, creating false or distorted memories. This suggests that hypnosis may not be a reliable method for retrieving accurate information in criminal investigations.

Negative reinforcement refers to the process of removing or avoiding an aversive or unpleasant stimulus in order to increase the likelihood of a certain behavior being repeated in the future. In this context, the correct answer suggests that negative reinforcement involves avoiding an aversive stimulus. This means that when a behavior is followed by the removal or avoidance of something unpleasant, it is more likely to be repeated in the future.

Shaping is the correct answer because it refers to the process of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior. In this scenario, the mother reinforced the skater for each small improvement made over time, which is an example of shaping. Intermittent conditioning refers to reinforcement that is delivered intermittently, rather than consistently, which does not fit the situation described. Latent learning refers to learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement, which is not the case here. Vicarious classical conditioning involves learning through observation, which is not mentioned in the scenario.

John B. Watson is considered the originator of behaviorism. He was a psychologist who believed that psychology should focus on observable behavior rather than internal mental processes. Watson conducted the famous "Little Albert" experiment, which demonstrated how phobias can be learned through conditioning. He emphasized the importance of environmental factors in shaping behavior and believed that behavior could be predicted and controlled through conditioning techniques. Watson's ideas had a significant impact on the field of psychology and laid the foundation for the development of behaviorism as a major school of thought.

Melzack and Wall's theory, known as the gate control theory, suggests that painkilling effects of acupuncture can be explained through this theory. The gate control theory proposes that pain signals are regulated by a "gate" mechanism in the spinal cord, which can be opened or closed to control the transmission of pain signals to the brain. According to this theory, acupuncture may stimulate the nerve fibers that close the gate, thereby reducing the perception of pain. This theory provides a plausible explanation for the pain-relieving effects of acupuncture.

The correct answer is response cost, since this strategy is usually best for older children. Response cost is a form of punishment where a child loses a privilege or reward as a consequence of their behavior. This technique is typically more effective for older children who can understand the concept of losing something valuable. Delayed punishment or frequent punishment may not be as effective in this situation.

Deep processing refers to the level of processing where semantic, meaningful, and symbolic characteristics are used. It involves encoding information in a way that connects it to existing knowledge and understanding, making it easier to remember and retrieve. This type of processing requires a more thorough engagement with the material and a deeper level of understanding. It is in contrast to low level processing, which involves shallow encoding of surface-level features such as physical appearance or sound. Meaningful processing and mindful processing are not specific terms used to describe levels of processing, so they are not the correct answers.

Higher order conditioning refers to the process in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with a new neutral stimulus (NS), resulting in the NS becoming a second conditioned stimulus (CS2) that elicits a conditioned response (CR). In this case, Justin initially associated doctors and nurses with painful shots, leading to fear. However, he then generalized this fear to round brick buildings, which were associated with his doctor. This demonstrates a higher order conditioning, as the fear response was transferred from the original CS (doctors and nurses) to a new CS2 (round brick buildings).

The statement suggests that as you learn more information, it becomes easier to add new information to memory. This implies that the more you learn, the more efficient your memory becomes in encoding and storing new information. It does not mention anything about forgetting previously learned information, interference and retrieval failure, or the development of Alzheimer's disease or other forms of dementia. Therefore, the correct answer is to add new information to memory.