Police Discretion And Dilemmas

Informants are civilians who are used to obtain information about criminal activity and/or participate in it so evidence can be obtained for an arrest. They provide valuable information to law enforcement agencies, often in exchange for some form of protection or leniency. Informants play a crucial role in gathering intelligence, infiltrating criminal organizations, and aiding in the prosecution of criminals. They help law enforcement agencies to build cases and gather evidence, ultimately leading to arrests and convictions.

Ethical formalism is a moral theory that emphasizes following universal moral principles, such as the categorical imperative proposed by Immanuel Kant. The categorical imperative states that one should only act in ways that can be universally applied without contradiction. In terms of undercover operations, ethical formalism would likely condemn operations where innocent people are deceived because it violates the categorical imperative. Deceiving innocent people cannot be universally justified as a moral action, as it contradicts the principle of treating others as ends in themselves rather than means to an end. Therefore, ethical formalism would reject undercover operations that involve deceiving innocent individuals.

The term entrapment refers to when an otherwise innocent person commits an illegal act because of police encouragement or enticement. This means that the person would not have committed the illegal act if it were not for the actions or influence of the police. It is a situation where the police intentionally lead or manipulate someone into committing a crime that they would not have otherwise committed.

In Barker and Carter's proposed typology of lies, tolerated lies are considered as "necessary evils". This implies that although these lies are not ideal or morally right, they are deemed acceptable or tolerated under certain circumstances. Tolerated lies may be used to achieve a greater good or to prevent harm, even though they involve deception. This suggests that in certain situations, lying may be considered justifiable or necessary, despite its generally negative connotations.

The term "dirty harry problem" refers to the question of whether police should use immoral means to achieve a desired moral outcome. This term is derived from the fictional character Dirty Harry, who is known for his unorthodox and morally ambiguous methods of fighting crime. The question at hand is whether it is justifiable for law enforcement to bend or break the rules in order to bring about a greater good. This dilemma raises ethical concerns and debates about the limits of police authority and the potential consequences of compromising moral principles for the sake of achieving desired outcomes.

The New York police department has a relatively low shooting rate when compared with the size of their force. This suggests that despite some high profile cases involving deadly force, the overall number of shootings by the New York police department is lower compared to other police departments. This could be attributed to various factors such as effective training, stricter use of force policies, community engagement initiatives, or better de-escalation techniques.

The given correct answer states that one of the biggest problems with informants is that their reliability is highly questionable. This means that informants may not always provide accurate or trustworthy information, making it difficult for law enforcement agencies to rely on them. The answer suggests that the reliability of informants is a significant concern and can hinder the effectiveness of their cooperation with law enforcement.

A utilitarian system is most likely to support the statement because it focuses on maximizing overall happiness and minimizing overall suffering. In this case, if drug interdiction is believed to be effective in reducing drug-related harm to society as a whole, the utilitarian perspective would argue that the ends of reducing harm justify the means of harassing and inconveniencing a racial or ethnic minority group.

Barker and Carter's typology of lies includes accepted lies, deviant lies, and tolerated lies. However, normative lies are not included in their typology. Normative lies refer to lies that are considered socially acceptable or normal within a particular culture or society. Since Barker and Carter's typology focuses on lies that deviate from societal norms, normative lies are not included in their classification.

The given correct answer is "objective" because it suggests that the approach used to determine if entrapment occurred focuses on examining the government's participation and whether it has exceeded accepted legal standards. This implies that the approach is based on factual evidence and does not involve personal opinions or biases, which aligns with the definition of an objective approach.

Barker and Carter proposed a typology of lies that included various categories. One of these categories is "accepted lies." Accepted lies refer to lies that are commonly tolerated or even encouraged in certain social or cultural contexts. These lies are often seen as necessary for maintaining social harmony or protecting individuals' feelings. Unlike other types of lies, accepted lies are generally not considered morally wrong or harmful.

The subjective approach looks at the defendant's background, character, and predisposition toward crime to determine if entrapment occurred. This means that the focus is on the individual's personal characteristics and circumstances, rather than on any objective evidence or external factors. By considering subjective factors, such as the defendant's intentions and motivations, the court can assess whether the individual was predisposed to commit the crime or if they were coerced or induced by law enforcement.

The classic father confessor approach to interrogations involves a sympathetic paternal figure for the defendant to confide in. This means that the person conducting the interrogation takes on a caring and understanding role, creating a safe space for the defendant to share information and potentially confess to their actions. This approach focuses on building trust and rapport with the defendant, rather than using physical force or intimidation tactics.

The correct answer is the objective and subjective approaches. These two approaches are used to determine whether entrapment has occurred. The objective approach involves analyzing the actions and behavior of law enforcement officers to determine if they created a situation that would induce a person to commit a crime they would not have otherwise committed. The subjective approach focuses on the defendant's predisposition to commit the crime and whether law enforcement merely provided an opportunity for them to do so. By considering both objective and subjective factors, a determination can be made regarding whether entrapment has occurred.

The objective test for entrapment focuses on law enforcement involvement in the crime committed. This means that the test evaluates whether law enforcement officers played a substantial role in inducing or encouraging the defendant to commit the crime. It examines the actions and conduct of the police officers involved, rather than focusing on the criminal record or moral character of the defendant or the police officer. The key factor in determining entrapment is whether the defendant was predisposed to commit the crime or if they were coerced or persuaded by law enforcement.

Blue lies are lies that are used to control a person or make a job easier in situations where force could be used. These lies are often told by individuals in positions of authority, such as law enforcement officers, to maintain order and protect the greater good. Blue lies are considered to be morally ambiguous as they involve deception for a perceived higher purpose.

In the case of Brown v. Mississippi, the Supreme Court ruled that the use of physical force to obtain a conviction is unconstitutional. This landmark decision established that confessions obtained through torture or brutality are inadmissible in court. The ruling set an important precedent in protecting the rights of individuals against coercive tactics used by law enforcement during interrogations. Therefore, the correct answer is Brown v. Mississippi.

The correct answer is "ask for proof of citizenship or residency if there was reasonable suspicion that the person was an illegal immigrant." This answer is supported by the fact that the law passed in Arizona in May 2010 required police officers to ask for proof of citizenship or residency only if there was reasonable suspicion that the person was an illegal immigrant. This means that officers cannot ask for proof of citizenship or residency from everyone they stop or from all motorists, nor can they base their request on the person's appearance or ethnicity.

Barker and Carter's typology of lies categorizes accepted lies as those used during undercover investigations. This means that in certain situations, such as law enforcement operations, it is deemed necessary to use deception in order to gather information or maintain the integrity of an investigation. These lies are considered acceptable because they serve a greater purpose in controlling and apprehending criminals.

The U.S. Supreme Court has endorsed the subjective approach to determine entrapment. This approach focuses on the defendant's predisposition to commit the crime rather than the actions of law enforcement. It considers whether the defendant was already inclined to commit the crime and was merely provided with an opportunity by law enforcement. This approach places importance on the defendant's state of mind and personal characteristics, rather than solely on the actions of law enforcement.

The term "police placebos" refers to the act of providing false reassurance or false information to someone in order to calm them down or alleviate their concerns. In this case, telling a mentally ill person that the police will take care of the laser beams from Mars is an example of providing false reassurance or false information to make them feel better, even though it is not true. This can be seen as a form of "police placebos" because it is using false information to pacify the person's fears or anxieties.

According to the objective approach, if the state provided an "essential element" that made the crime possible or if there was extensive and coercive pressure on the defendant to engage in the actions, a court might rule that entrapment had occurred. This means that the defendant was induced or coerced by law enforcement to commit the crime, and therefore should not be held fully responsible for their actions.

The Amadou Diallo case of mistaken identity is an example of deadly force because it involved the shooting of an unarmed man by police officers. Diallo was mistaken for a suspect and was shot at 41 times, with 19 bullets hitting him. This incident resulted in his death, demonstrating the use of excessive and lethal force.

The strongest ethical argument against undercover officers having intimate relationships with suspects comes from the ethics of care. This perspective emphasizes the importance of maintaining trust, empathy, and compassion in relationships. Engaging in intimate relationships with suspects can compromise the officer's ability to act in the best interest of the suspect and may lead to biases and conflicts of interest. The ethics of care prioritizes the well-being and dignity of individuals, and engaging in intimate relationships with suspects can undermine these principles.

The correct answer is that the "third degree" is no longer used. This means that the practice of using aggressive and coercive methods during interrogations, often referred to as the "third degree," is no longer employed by law enforcement agencies. This change in approach is likely due to ethical concerns and the recognition that such methods can lead to false confessions or violations of human rights.

Barker and Carter's proposed typology of lies categorizes deviant lies as those used in the courtroom to make a case or cover up a wrongdoing. This means that deviant lies are lies that are specifically employed within a legal setting with the intention of either presenting a false narrative to support one's case or concealing a wrongdoing or guilt. These lies are considered deviant because they go against the principles of honesty and truth-seeking that are typically expected in a courtroom setting.

The given statement is false because most studies indicate that Hispanics are more likely than blacks to report feeling that the police would treat them fairly.

The answer is "informant being killed" because the question asks for ethical problems with informants, and being killed is not an ethical problem but rather a physical danger or harm that can happen to an informant. The other options, such as engaging in love affairs with informants, overestimating veracity, and being used by informants, all involve ethical concerns and potential misconduct by the informant.

The given answer states that "those involved in the lie must readily admit lying if promoted by a superior officer or legal authority." This statement contradicts the principles mentioned by Barker and Carter. According to them, accepted lies must meet all the other standards mentioned, such as being in furtherance of legitimate organizational purpose, having a clear relationship between the need to deceive and the accomplishment of an organizational purpose, and the deception being acknowledged by officers and management as serving the public interest better than the truth. However, the requirement to admit lying when promoted by a superior officer or legal authority is not mentioned as one of the standards.

The given correct answer states that the vast majority of people believe that excessive force happens fairly frequently. However, this statement is false. The use-of-force statistics do not indicate that the majority of people believe excessive force occurs frequently. The statistics are based on objective data such as civil rights complaints and official documents like police incident reports, rather than subjective opinions or beliefs. Therefore, this statement is not supported by the use-of-force statistics.