Psy Kev 101 1-5

Perceptual set refers to the expectations and predispositions that influence how we interpret and perceive stimuli. These expectations can be based on past experiences, cultural influences, and personal beliefs. Our perceptual set can shape our interpretation of sensory information and can lead to biases and errors in perception. Perceptual constancies, on the other hand, refer to the ability to perceive objects as being the same despite changes in sensory input, such as size or shape. Nativism is a philosophical theory that suggests certain abilities or knowledge are innate or instinctive. Perceptual illusions are distortions or misinterpretations of sensory information.

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When rods and cones are exposed to light, they undergo a chemical reaction that results in a neural signal. This is the process of phototransduction, where the light energy is converted into an electrical signal that can be transmitted to the brain for visual processing. This reaction involves the activation of photopigments in the rods and cones, which leads to a change in their membrane potential and the release of neurotransmitters, ultimately generating a neural signal that can be interpreted as visual information.

The correct answer is behavioral. The fundamental laws of learning, such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning, are central to the behavioral perspective of psychology. This perspective emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli and consequences in shaping behavior. It focuses on observable behavior and the principles of reinforcement and punishment.

The famous Bobo doll studies conducted by Albert Bandura demonstrated that the performance of a behavior can be influenced by the cognitive expectation of receiving reinforcement or punishment. In these studies, children observed an adult model behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll and then were given the opportunity to interact with the doll themselves. The children who witnessed the adult being praised or rewarded for their aggressive behavior were more likely to imitate the same behavior, while those who observed the adult being punished or reprimanded were less likely to engage in aggressive behavior. This highlights the role of cognitive processes, such as expectations of reinforcement or punishment, in shaping behavior.

John B. Watson, a key figure in behaviorism, believed that consciousness was not a valid concept and considered it to be associated with superstition and magic. This belief was a fundamental aspect of behaviorism, which focused on observable behaviors and rejected the study of internal mental processes. Watson's rejection of consciousness as a valid concept aligned with the central tenets of behaviorism, making this statement about behaviorism true.

Caffeine is the most widely used psychoactive drug in the world because it is found in many common beverages such as coffee, tea, and soda. It is a stimulant that affects the central nervous system, providing a temporary boost in energy and alertness. Unlike other drugs like heroin, marijuana, and cocaine, caffeine is legal and socially accepted in most cultures. Its widespread availability and relatively mild effects make it the drug of choice for many people seeking a quick pick-me-up.

A particular neurotransmitter can have different effects depending on the receptor site to which it attaches. This means that the same neurotransmitter can either have an excitatory or inhibitory effect depending on the specific receptor it binds to. The effect of the neurotransmitter is determined by the type of receptor and its location within the nervous system.

Based on the given symptoms, such as sweating profusely, chewing ice and a plastic pacifier, drinking large quantities of water, and expressing love for all humanity, it suggests that Brandy's friend is likely high on MDMA (ecstasy). MDMA is a recreational drug that is known to cause increased energy, euphoria, heightened sensory perception, and a desire for physical contact and emotional connection with others.

Aristotle is the correct answer because he was a famous Greek philosopher who wrote extensively about various psychological topics such as sleep and dreaming, the senses, memory, and learning. He believed that these topics were important for understanding human behavior and the workings of the mind. Aristotle's writings on these subjects have had a significant influence on the field of psychology and continue to be studied and discussed today.

A hypothesis is a tentative statement that describes the relationship between two or more variables. It is an educated guess or a proposed explanation for a phenomenon that can be tested through research and observation. It is not a theory that has been proven, a geometrical construct, or the operational definition of the independent variable.

In classical conditioning, a learned response is produced by repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally elicits a response. Through this repeated pairing, the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the naturally elicited response and eventually elicits the response on its own. This process is known as conditioning and forms the basis of classical conditioning.

Dr. Jackson's focus on studying changes in the brain after stressful experiences suggests that he is interested in the biological perspective. This perspective emphasizes the role of biological factors, such as genetics and the brain, in shaping behavior and mental processes. By studying the brain, Dr. Jackson is likely interested in understanding how physiological processes contribute to the experience and effects of stress.

The daily slump in mental alertness around 3 o'clock each afternoon is a common experience for most people, indicating a regular pattern or cycle. This pattern is known as a circadian rhythm, which refers to the natural 24-hour cycle that regulates various physiological processes, including sleep-wake cycles and mental alertness. This explanation aligns with the given correct answer of "a circadian rhythm."

Mr. Wilkinson is displaying sleep apnea, which is a sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or shallow breathing during sleep. This causes the person to awaken slightly to gulp in air before going back to sleep. This pattern of interrupted breathing can occur multiple times throughout the night.

The correct answer is psychologists have devised more objective ways to study conscious experience. In recent years, advancements in technology and research methods have allowed psychologists to study consciousness in a more objective and scientific manner. This has led to a renewed interest in the study of consciousness and a shift away from Freud's emphasis on unconscious mental processes.

Jackie's interpretation probably reflects her perceptual set that the house was haunted. This means that Jackie's prior beliefs and expectations about the house being haunted influenced her perception of the strange noise. Her belief in the haunted nature of the house caused her to interpret the noise as the footsteps of a ghost, while Beth, who did not share the same belief, interpreted it as just a broken door rattling in the wind. This shows how our expectations and beliefs can shape our perception of the world around us.

The middle ear serves the primary function of amplifying the vibration of sound waves. This is achieved through a chain of small bones called the ossicles, which transmit and amplify the sound vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear. This amplification is necessary because the sound waves that reach the middle ear are typically weak, and need to be intensified in order for the inner ear to detect and process them effectively. Amplification in the middle ear allows for better perception and understanding of sounds.

The lens of the eye is responsible for adjusting its thickness in order to focus incoming light onto the retina. This process is called accommodation.

The cognitive perspective of psychology focuses on understanding the role of mental processes in various aspects of human cognition, such as information processing, language development, problem-solving, and thinking. This perspective emphasizes the importance of studying internal mental processes to gain insight into how individuals perceive, interpret, and respond to the world around them. By examining cognitive processes, psychologists can better understand how people acquire knowledge, make decisions, and solve problems, leading to a deeper understanding of human behavior and cognition.

Physiologists demonstrated that scientific methods could be applied to understanding human behavior and mental processes. This contributed to the emergence of psychology as a separate scientific discipline because it showed that the study of the mind and behavior could be approached in a scientific and empirical manner. This helped to establish psychology as a legitimate field of study and paved the way for the development of its own theories, methods, and research practices.

Former methamphetamine users who have been abstinent for months show an abnormally low number of dopamine receptors and transporters in PET scans. This suggests that the drug has had a lasting impact on their brain's dopamine system, which is responsible for reward and pleasure. This could explain why these individuals may continue to experience cravings and difficulties with motivation and pleasure even after quitting methamphetamine use.

The myelin sheath is a fatty substance that wraps around the axon of a neuron. Its primary function is to insulate the axon, which helps to increase the speed at which neurons convey their messages. This insulation prevents the loss of electrical signals and allows them to travel more efficiently along the axon. Therefore, the correct answer is that the myelin sheath insulates the axon and increases the speed of neuronal communication.

Classical conditioning involves learning through the association of stimuli and the elicitation of involuntary, reflexive behaviors. On the other hand, operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of voluntary behaviors and the emission of those behaviors. Therefore, the relationship between classical conditioning and operant conditioning can be understood as elicited behaviors (classical conditioning) being to emitted behaviors (operant conditioning).

Conditioning refers to the process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses. It involves the pairing of a specific stimulus with a particular response, leading to the formation of a conditioned response. This process can occur through classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a reflexive response, or through operant conditioning, where a behavior is reinforced or punished to increase or decrease its occurrence. Stimulus discrimination and stimulus generalization are related concepts that occur within the context of conditioning, while extinction refers to the gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Edward Tolman would explain Helen's behavior by suggesting that she has formed a cognitive map of the area. This means that Helen has developed a mental representation of the layout and routes in her environment. When she encountered the road closure, she was able to use her cognitive map to quickly navigate an alternative route to the college campus. This explanation highlights the role of mental processes and internal representations in guiding behavior.

Transduction is the process by which sensory stimuli are converted into neural signals that can be interpreted by the brain. In this scenario, the stimulation of the special receptors in the nose by the smell of chlorine is converted into neural signals that the brain interprets as the smell of chlorine. Therefore, transduction is the correct term to describe this process.

The decrease in the students' anxiety can be attributed to extinction. Extinction is the process of reducing or eliminating a conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. In this case, the conditioned stimulus is Friday mornings, which used to be associated with quizzes and caused anxiety. However, when Dr. Cruz stopped giving quizzes on Fridays, the association between Friday mornings and quizzes was broken, leading to a decrease in anxiety over time. This is an example of extinction because the conditioned response (anxiety) is gradually reduced or eliminated when the conditioned stimulus (Friday mornings) is no longer followed by the unconditioned stimulus (quizzes).

Moderate or heavy use of MDMA (ecstasy) can lead to irreversible damage to the brain's serotonin system. MDMA primarily affects the release and reuptake of serotonin in the brain, causing a surge of serotonin levels. However, prolonged and excessive use of MDMA can deplete the brain's serotonin levels, leading to long-term damage to the serotonin system. This can result in various neurological and psychiatric problems, including depression, anxiety, memory impairment, and sleep disturbances.

The stimulus threshold of a neuron refers to the minimum level of stimulation required to activate that specific neuron. This means that in order for the neuron to fire an action potential and transmit information to other neurons, it needs to receive a certain amount of stimulation. If the stimulation is below this threshold, the neuron will not be activated. Therefore, the correct answer is the minimum level of stimulation required to activate a particular neuron.

Psychoanalysis is a psychological approach that focuses on understanding and treating mental disorders by exploring the unconscious mind. It suggests that unconscious thoughts, feelings, and desires influence behavior and can be brought into conscious awareness through techniques such as free association and dream analysis. By uncovering these unconscious causes of behavior, psychoanalysis aims to help individuals gain insight into their thoughts and emotions, leading to personal growth and healing.

Debriefing is the correct answer because it refers to the stage of the research where the participant is provided with information about the true nature and purpose of the experiment after it is completed. In this scenario, the research assistant explained to Juanita that her answers were actually correct and why she was told they were wrong. This helps ensure that participants understand the reasons for any deception or manipulation used in the study and allows them to ask questions or express any concerns they may have.

Brain waves refer to the rhythmic electrical patterns that are produced by the brain. These patterns can be measured using electroencephalography (EEG) and are associated with different states of consciousness, such as wakefulness, sleep, and meditation. Brain waves are categorized into different frequencies, including delta, theta, alpha, beta, and gamma waves, each representing different levels of brain activity. Therefore, brain waves are the correct term to describe the rhythmic electrical patterns of the brain.

Terry is using the Premack principle. The Premack principle states that a more preferred activity can be used as a reward or reinforcement for a less preferred activity. In this case, Terry is using the opportunity to play "The Sims" as a reward for completing the housework tasks of doing the dinner dishes and putting away the clean laundry. By allowing Lauren to engage in the preferred activity after completing the less preferred tasks, Terry is using the Premack principle to motivate and reinforce her behavior.

Dr. Hazlett concluded that the result of her experiment was statistically significant, which means that the likelihood of the results occurring by chance is very low. This suggests that there is a real and meaningful relationship between the variables being studied in the experiment. Therefore, the correct answer is that the results of the experiment were not likely to have occurred by chance.

The question asks about the view of hypnosis that is supported by studies using brain-imaging techniques. The correct answer states that these studies support the view that hypnosis is a distinct mental state, and not merely role-playing. This implies that the brain activity observed during hypnosis is different from normal consciousness, suggesting that hypnosis is a unique state of mind.

Dr. Repetti is a sleep researcher who wants to record the rhythmic electrical patterns of the brain. The electroencephalograph (EEG) is a device used to measure and record the electrical activity of the brain. It is commonly used in sleep research to study brain waves and patterns during different stages of sleep. Therefore, it is the most likely method that Dr. Repetti would use to achieve his research goals.

Anthony is using the self-control strategy of focusing on the delayed reinforcer. Instead of being tempted by the immediate gratification of going to the party, Anthony is visualizing his future as a doctor and the long-term benefits of getting a good grade on his final exam. By focusing on the delayed reinforcer, Anthony is able to resist the temptation and prioritize his long-term goals over short-term enjoyment.

Atropine blocks acetylcholine receptor sites. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in transmitting nerve signals. Nerve gas works by inhibiting the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, causing an excess of acetylcholine in the body. Atropine works as an antidote by binding to the acetylcholine receptor sites, preventing the nerve gas from binding and causing its toxic effects. By blocking the receptor sites, atropine helps to counteract the effects of the nerve gas and restore normal nerve function.

The olfactory nerve is made up of the bundled axons of the olfactory receptor cells, the olfactory neurons. This is because the olfactory receptor cells are responsible for detecting smells in the nasal cavity. The axons of these cells come together to form the olfactory nerve, which then transmits the information about the detected smells to the brain. Therefore, the correct answer is that the olfactory nerve is made up of the bundled axons of the olfactory receptor cells, the olfactory neurons.

Binocular disparity refers to the difference in the position of an object as seen by the left and right eyes. In the context of stereograms, binocular disparity is used to create the illusion of depth. Each eye sees a slightly different image, and the brain combines these two images to perceive a three-dimensional image. In the case of the Magic Eye stereograms, the two-dimensional image is designed in a way that when viewed correctly, the brain can perceive a hidden three-dimensional image. Therefore, binocular disparity is the perceptual principle that allows stereograms to work.

Carl Rogers emphasized conscious experiences and each person's unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction. He believed in the importance of the individual's subjective experience and the need for unconditional positive regard and empathy in therapy. Rogers's humanistic approach focused on the belief that individuals have the innate capacity for personal growth and self-actualization. He emphasized the importance of creating a supportive and empathetic therapeutic environment to facilitate this growth.

The correct sequence of events in hearing starts with the pinna, which collects sound waves and directs them into the ear canal. The sound waves then reach the eardrum, causing it to vibrate. These vibrations are then transmitted to the hammer, anvil, and stirrup, which amplify the vibrations and transmit them to the oval window. The oval window transfers the vibrations to the cochlea, where the basilar membrane and hair cells convert the vibrations into electrical signals. Finally, these electrical signals are transmitted to the auditory nerve, which sends them to the brain for interpretation.

Multiple sclerosis is a disease that involves the degeneration of the myelin sheath, which is the protective covering around nerve fibers in the central nervous system. This degeneration leads to the slowing or interruption of the transmission of neural messages, causing a variety of symptoms such as muscle weakness, difficulty with coordination, and problems with vision and cognition. The other options mentioned in the question, such as an abnormal increase in the thickness of the myelin sheath or multiple fractures in the sclerotic membrane, are not associated with multiple sclerosis.

The amygdala is associated with the emotional responses of fear, disgust, and anger. It plays a crucial role in processing and regulating emotions, especially those related to fear and threat. The amygdala helps in recognizing and interpreting emotional stimuli, and it is involved in the physiological and behavioral responses associated with these emotions. It also interacts with other brain regions to coordinate the appropriate emotional response in different situations.

Nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism are all refractive errors that occur when the incoming light signals are not properly focused on the retina. In nearsightedness, the light is focused in front of the retina, causing distant objects to appear blurry. In farsightedness, the light is focused behind the retina, causing nearby objects to appear blurry. Astigmatism occurs when the cornea or lens is irregularly shaped, resulting in distorted vision at all distances.

The research findings that European subjects engage in social loafing while Chinese subjects display the opposite behavior suggest that there are cultural differences in psychology. This highlights the importance of cross-cultural psychology, which examines how cultural factors influence human behavior and mental processes.

Gail was using the technique of imagery to help reduce her perception of pain. Imagery involves creating vivid mental images or visualizations, in this case, thinking about the flowers she wanted to plant and visualizing how she wanted to arrange them. By focusing her attention on something pleasant and engaging, Gail was able to distract herself from the pain and reduce her perception of it.

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences. This means that individuals learn to repeat behaviors that are followed by rewards or positive consequences, while behaviors that are followed by punishment or negative consequences are less likely to be repeated. This principle is the basis of operant conditioning, as it emphasizes the role of consequences in shaping and maintaining behavior.

Blair's crying at just the sight of Mrs. Snarly suggests that Mrs. Snarly has become a conditioned stimulus. This means that Blair has associated Mrs. Snarly's presence with the negative experiences and scolding she received from her. As a result, Blair has developed a conditioned response of crying whenever she sees Mrs. Snarly, even if there is no actual threat or scolding present.

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