Chapter 1 Burton

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behaviors are strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow them. Unlike reflexive behaviors that are automatic and involuntary, operant conditioning focuses on voluntary behaviors that are under the control of the individual. In operant conditioning, behaviors are shaped through reinforcement or punishment, depending on whether they are desired or undesired. This type of conditioning is commonly used in behavior modification programs and training animals.

The statement "Jack can't learn because he has Down syndrome" is an example of a biophysical explanation of behavior. This explanation attributes Jack's inability to learn to his biological condition, specifically Down syndrome. It suggests that his cognitive abilities are limited due to the physical characteristics and genetic factors associated with Down syndrome.

Behaviorists are least concerned with past events because their focus is on observable behaviors and the functional relation between behavior and present events. Behaviorists believe that past events, such as previous experiences or childhood traumas, are not as important as the current environment and the consequences of behavior. They emphasize studying and understanding behaviors that can be directly observed and measured in the present moment, rather than delving into the complexities of past events and their influence on behavior.

A useful theory in explaining behavior must be inclusive, meaning it should account for a wide range of behaviors and factors. It should also be verifiable, meaning that it can be tested and supported through empirical evidence. Additionally, the theory should have predictive validity, meaning that it can accurately predict future behaviors or outcomes based on its principles. Lastly, the theory should be parsimonious, meaning that it should be simple and concise, avoiding unnecessary complexity. These qualities ensure that the theory is comprehensive, supported by evidence, can make accurate predictions, and is not unnecessarily complicated.

To be considered "verifiable," an explanation of behavior should be testable. This means that it should be possible to conduct experiments or observations to gather evidence and support for the explanation. By being testable, researchers can gather data and analyze it to determine if the explanation accurately predicts and explains behavior. This allows for the scientific method to be applied, ensuring that explanations are based on empirical evidence rather than assumptions or personal beliefs.

Negative reinforcement refers to a relationship among events in which the rate of a behavior's occurrence increases when some environmental condition is removed. This means that the behavior is strengthened or reinforced by the removal or avoidance of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus. In other words, when the environment condition is taken away, the behavior is more likely to occur in the future. This is different from positive reinforcement, which involves the addition of a desirable stimulus to strengthen a behavior.

Naturalism is not a contributor to the behavioral viewpoint because it focuses on understanding human behavior through the lens of natural sciences, such as biology and neuroscience. The behavioral viewpoint, on the other hand, emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the influence of external stimuli on behavior, rather than focusing on internal mental processes or biological factors. Therefore, naturalism does not align with the core principles of the behavioral viewpoint.

To have predictive utility, an explanation of behavior must provide reliable answers about what people are likely to do under certain circumstances. This means that the explanation should consistently and accurately predict human behavior in specific situations. While accounting for a substantial quantity of behavior and being testable are important factors, they are not sufficient on their own to ensure predictive utility. Additionally, providing the simplest explanation is not a necessary criterion for predictive utility, as the complexity of human behavior often requires more nuanced explanations.

Stimulus control is the behavioral principle being used when a pleasant consequence to a behavior leads to an increase in the behavior's rate of occurrence. This principle suggests that the behavior is more likely to happen when it is consistently reinforced by a specific stimulus or cue. In other words, the behavior is under the control of the stimulus, and the individual is more likely to engage in the behavior when that stimulus is present.

The correct answer is shaping and negative reinforcement. Shaping refers to the process of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior. In this case, Ms. Sims reinforced Tia's attempts to sit during circle time, starting from standing next to her chair and gradually progressing to having one knee on the chair, until Tia remained seated. This demonstrates the use of shaping. Negative reinforcement refers to the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior. In this scenario, by reinforcing Tia's behavior of sitting, Ms. Sims removed the aversive stimulus of not receiving reinforcement, thereby increasing the likelihood of Tia remaining seated during morning circle time.