Political Psychology Final Exam

When the ego is threatened, according to Sigmund Freud, we tend to resort to defense mechanisms. These mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies that we use to protect ourselves from anxiety and maintain our self-esteem. They help us to cope with conflicts and reduce the discomfort caused by the ego being threatened. Defense mechanisms include denial, repression, projection, displacement, and many others. By using these mechanisms, we unconsciously distort reality or repress thoughts and feelings that are too difficult to handle.

The phrase "Tabula Rasa" is a Latin term that translates to "The Blank Slate." This term refers to the philosophical concept that suggests that individuals are born with a mind that is free from any preconceived ideas or knowledge. It implies that one's mind is like an empty slate at birth, and all knowledge and experiences are acquired through learning and environmental influences. This concept has been influential in various fields, including psychology, philosophy, and education.

Classical conditioning is a type of learning that focuses on involuntary responses. It involves associating a neutral stimulus with a naturally occurring stimulus to create a learned response. This learned response is not under conscious control and is therefore considered involuntary. This is why classical conditioning is primarily concerned with the learning of involuntary responses rather than voluntary responses.

Operant conditioning is a type of learning that focuses on voluntary responses. It involves the association between a behavior and its consequences, which can either reinforce or discourage the behavior. This type of conditioning is different from classical conditioning, which deals with reflexes and involuntary responses. Salivation, on the other hand, is a reflexive response that is not directly related to operant conditioning. Therefore, the correct answer is voluntary responses.

Oskar Schindler was considered an unusual rescuer because his behavior in other areas of life wasn't particularly ethical. This suggests that his actions to save Jewish lives during the Holocaust were not driven by a strong moral compass or a consistent ethical stance. It highlights the complexity of his character and raises questions about his motivations for saving lives.

Milgram argued that some of his subjects laughed during the experiments because it was a nervous reaction to stress. The participants were placed in a highly stressful situation where they were instructed to administer electric shocks to another person. Laughing can be a common response to alleviate tension and anxiety. It is likely that the subjects found the situation so overwhelming and uncomfortable that laughing became a coping mechanism for them. Therefore, the laughter can be seen as a manifestation of their nervousness in response to the stress of the experiment.

The first main 'wave' in the study of political psychology was focused on personality studies. This wave emerged in the early 20th century and sought to understand how individual personalities influence political beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Researchers explored concepts such as authoritarianism, political ideology, and the role of personality traits in shaping political preferences. This wave laid the foundation for further research in political psychology and highlighted the importance of individual differences in understanding political phenomena.

The correct answer is "An accomplice of the experimenter." In the Milgram obedience experiments, the supposed 'subject' who received the 'electrical shocks' was actually a confederate, someone who was working with the experimenter. This confederate pretended to be a participant but was aware of the true purpose of the experiment. Their role was to act as if they were receiving painful shocks in order to elicit certain responses from the actual participants, who were the ones being studied.

In Freud's theory, defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that individuals use to protect themselves from anxiety or distress. Denial is a defense mechanism where a person refuses to acknowledge a threatening or uncomfortable reality. Projection is when someone attributes their own unacceptable thoughts or feelings onto someone else. Repression involves pushing unwanted thoughts or memories into the unconscious mind. All three options - denial, projection, and repression - can be considered defense mechanisms according to Freud's theory.

The Pavlov's dog experiment illustrated classical conditioning. In this experiment, Pavlov conditioned dogs to associate the sound of a bell with the presentation of food. Eventually, the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell alone, even without the presence of food. This demonstrates classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus (the bell) becomes associated with a natural response (salivation) through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (food).

Behaviorism is the most likely school of thought to subscribe to the notion of the tabula rasa. Behaviorism believes that all behavior is learned through conditioning and that individuals are born as a blank slate, with no innate characteristics or predispositions. This aligns with the concept of tabula rasa, which suggests that individuals are shaped solely by their environment and experiences.

Bringing in independent advisers from outside the group might be a good idea in trying to minimize the occurrence of groupthink because they can provide fresh perspectives and challenge the group's consensus. By having individuals who are not part of the group and have different backgrounds and experiences, it can help to prevent the group from becoming too homogeneous in their thinking and encourage diverse viewpoints. This can lead to more critical thinking, increased creativity, and better decision-making overall.

The engineer's concern about the below-freezing temperatures is a valid reason for warning against the launch. Cold temperatures can affect the performance and integrity of the shuttle's components, including the O-rings, which were later found to be the cause of the Challenger disaster. The engineer's worry demonstrates an understanding of the potential risks and the need for caution in such conditions.

When the 'ego' is threatened, according to Sigmund Freud, we resort to defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies that the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety and maintain a sense of psychological balance. These mechanisms can include denial, repression, projection, and rationalization, among others. By employing defense mechanisms, the ego attempts to reduce or redirect the anxiety caused by the threat, allowing the individual to cope with the situation and protect their self-esteem.

Roger Boisjoly warned that the 1986 Chellenger flight might be too risky to launch because he was worried about the below-freezing temperatures that were forecast for the morning of the launch.

The ego, according to Sigmund Freud, acts as a mediator between the 'childlike' and 'moral' elements of our mental processes. It operates based on the reality principle, balancing the desires of the id and the moral constraints of the superego. The ego helps to find realistic and socially acceptable ways to fulfill our desires while considering the consequences and moral values.

John F. Kennedy provides a good example of an individual with high integrative complexity because he was known for his ability to consider multiple perspectives and integrate different ideas and viewpoints. He was able to navigate complex issues and make decisions that took into account various factors and considerations. Kennedy's approach to problem-solving and decision-making demonstrated his high level of integrative complexity.

The idea that decision-makers 'maximize their utility' is associated with the Homo Economicus approach discussed in class. Homo Economicus is an economic theory that assumes individuals make rational decisions by maximizing their own self-interest and utility. This theory suggests that decision-makers weigh the costs and benefits of different options and choose the one that maximizes their personal satisfaction or utility.

A situationist explanation of the Stanford experiment suggests that people's behavior is primarily influenced by the situation they are in rather than their personal traits. However, the presence of both good and bad guards in the experiment indicates that individual differences and personal traits might have played a role in the behavior of the guards. This challenges the idea that the situation alone was responsible for their actions and suggests that individual characteristics also influenced their behavior.

Woodrow Wilson's inflexibility in later life can be attributed to a series of strokes. Strokes can cause damage to the brain, leading to cognitive impairments and changes in behavior. Inflexibility is a common symptom of stroke-related brain damage, as it can affect a person's ability to adapt to new situations or consider alternative perspectives. Therefore, it is likely that Wilson's series of strokes contributed to his inflexibility in later life.

The segment of the film in search of ourselves which we watched in class portrays the early tug of war between eugenics and behaviorism.

Dispositionism refers to the belief that our behavior is primarily shaped by our own psychological values and beliefs. This means that our actions and choices are influenced by our internal thoughts, attitudes, and perspectives rather than external factors or forces beyond our control.

Harold Lasswell's argument suggests that politicians tend to project or transfer their personal issues onto their public life. This means that instead of addressing and resolving their private problems, they divert their attention and focus onto their political responsibilities. This behavior can potentially impact their decision-making, public image, and overall effectiveness as politicians.

In the film "Hearts and Minds," bomber pilots are portrayed as being focused primarily on the technical aspects of their tasks. This behavior is compared to the behavior of Stanley Milgram's obedient subjects. This suggests that like Milgram's subjects who followed instructions without questioning or resisting, the bomber pilots also exhibit a similar tendency to prioritize their tasks and follow orders without considering the moral or ethical implications of their actions.

Solomon Asch's line experiments are generally supportive of the position of Situationism. These experiments demonstrated the power of social influence and the tendency of individuals to conform to the opinions and behaviors of a group, even when they know it is incorrect. This aligns with the principles of Situationism, which emphasizes the importance of situational factors in shaping human behavior, rather than internal traits or dispositions. Asch's experiments highlight how the social situation can override individual judgment and lead to conformity.

The correct answer is the murder of Kitty Genovese. The murder of Kitty Genovese in 1964, where she was attacked and killed in front of her apartment building while multiple witnesses did nothing to intervene or call for help, brought attention to the phenomenon now known as the bystander effect. This event led researchers to study and understand why people are less likely to offer assistance in a group setting, leading to the discovery of the bystander effect.

The 'Lord of the Flies' effect refers to the idea that in certain situations, individuals may exhibit aggressive and violent behavior when there is a lack of authority or societal norms. This effect was used in the class textbook to discuss the tendency of Zimbardo's subjects to 'go bad'. Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated that when placed in a simulated prison environment, ordinary college students quickly adopted aggressive and abusive behavior towards their fellow participants, highlighting the influence of situational factors on individual behavior. This explanation aligns with the given correct answer.

The 'Lord of the Flies' effect refers to the idea that in certain situations, individuals can become aggressive, violent, and lose their moral compass when there is a lack of authority and social norms. This effect was used in class to discuss the tendency of Zimbardo's subjects to 'go bad'. Zimbardo's famous Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated how even ordinary individuals can quickly adopt abusive and dehumanizing behavior when placed in a position of power and given the role of a prison guard. This highlights the impact of situational factors on human behavior and the potential for individuals to engage in harmful actions under certain circumstances.

The statement that the early years in the study of political psychology were dominated by cognitive psychological approaches is not true. This means that cognitive psychological approaches did not dominate the field during its early years.

The notion that we experience discomfort when confronted with information that doesn't align with our existing beliefs is primarily associated with cognitive consistency theory. This theory suggests that individuals have a natural tendency to seek consistency between their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. When faced with information that challenges this consistency, cognitive dissonance occurs, leading to discomfort and a motivation to reduce the dissonance by either changing our beliefs or minimizing the importance of the conflicting information.

Eugenics is the belief that human behavior and traits are determined by genetics and that these traits can be improved through selective breeding. This aligns with the notion that our behavior is 'fixed at birth' because it suggests that our behavior is predetermined by our genetic makeup and cannot be changed or influenced by external factors.

The correct answer is "The Abu Ghraib scandal." The Stanford experiments were used in the textbook to try to explain the events and behaviors that occurred during the Abu Ghraib scandal. The experiments conducted by Stanford psychologist Philip Zimbardo shed light on the power of situational influences and how they can lead to unethical behavior, similar to what was observed in the scandal. The experiments demonstrated the potential for individuals to engage in abusive and dehumanizing behavior when placed in certain environments and given positions of authority.

The example of the soccer player George Best is used in the textbook primarily to show the fact that conditioning often fails. This suggests that even though conditioning techniques may be employed, they do not always yield the desired results. George Best was a talented soccer player but struggled with alcoholism, which indicates that conditioning was not successful in preventing or overcoming his addiction. This example serves as a reminder that conditioning is not always effective and can have limitations.

The given answer is "Trophy photos were taken". This means that trophy photos were not taken in either Abu Ghraib or the Stanford experiments. The other options mentioned in the question - sexual humiliation being used by the guards, a 'John Wayne' figure emerging, and bags being placed on the heads of prisoners - were similarities between Abu Ghraib and the Stanford experiments.

The phrase 'banality of evil' was coined by Hannah Arendt in her book "Eichmann in Jerusalem." Arendt used this phrase to describe her observations of Adolf Eichmann, a Nazi officer responsible for orchestrating the Holocaust. She argued that Eichmann's actions were not driven by extreme hatred or malicious intent, but rather by a thoughtless adherence to bureaucratic procedures and a lack of moral responsibility. Arendt's concept of the banality of evil suggests that evil acts can be committed by ordinary individuals who are simply following orders or conforming to societal norms without critically questioning their actions.

Schema theory suggests that we are all "labellers" or "categorizers" because it proposes that our minds organize and categorize information into mental frameworks called schemas. Schemas help us make sense of the world by allowing us to quickly interpret and understand new information based on our existing knowledge and experiences. This process of labeling and categorizing is a fundamental aspect of schema theory, making it the most relevant explanation for the notion mentioned in the question.

Political psychology became widely available as a university course in its own right in the 1970s. This suggests that prior to this decade, political psychology was not recognized as a distinct field of study within universities. The emergence of political psychology as a separate discipline in the 1970s highlights the growing recognition of the importance of understanding the psychological factors that influence political behavior and decision-making.

The correct answer is "All of the above." This means that all of the given statements are true and contribute to the criticisms of the Stanford experiments. The fact that the chief experimenter was also the 'warden' raises concerns about potential bias and lack of impartiality. The ethical concerns suggest that the experiments may have violated ethical guidelines, potentially causing harm to the participants. Lastly, the criticism regarding insufficient variation in experimental conditions implies that the results may not be generalizable or reliable.

The correct answer is Dispositionism. Dispositionism refers to the belief that an individual's behavior is primarily influenced by their internal traits, characteristics, and dispositions. JFK's handling of the Cuban missile crisis can be seen as a good example of dispositionism because he demonstrated strong leadership, decision-making skills, and a calm demeanor during a highly stressful and dangerous situation. This suggests that JFK's actions were influenced by his personal qualities and traits rather than external situational factors.

In Milgram's famous obedience experiments, the correct answer is that gender made no difference. This means that there was no significant variation in the behavior of men and women when it came to obeying authority. The study suggests that both genders were equally likely to comply with the instructions given by the authority figure in the experiments.

The authoritarian personality theory suggests that the characteristics of Germans themselves were to blame for the Holocaust. This theory proposes that individuals with authoritarian personalities are more likely to follow orders from authority figures, even if those orders involve committing immoral or unethical acts. Therefore, the theory argues that it was the characteristics of the German people, specifically their susceptibility to authoritarianism, that contributed to the occurrence of the Holocaust.

The correct answer is "Woodrow Wilson and Colonel House" because this book claims that the failure of the Senate to pass the League of Nations Treaty was due to the president's psychological shortcomings.

The notion that human beings generally 'satisfice' when they make decisions is associated with Homo Psychologicus. This concept suggests that individuals often settle for satisfactory or "good enough" options rather than trying to maximize their outcomes. It recognizes that human decision-making is influenced by psychological factors such as emotions, biases, and cognitive limitations, which may lead to suboptimal choices. This contrasts with the rational actor approach, which assumes that individuals always make decisions based on a rational analysis of costs and benefits.

In the 1986 Challenger decision-making, all of the given symptoms emerged except for the decision-makers accepting a realistic appraisal of the risks. This means that instead of acknowledging and considering the actual risks involved, the decision-makers likely downplayed or ignored them. The other symptoms, such as forceful pressure on doubters, time pressure and stress, and the emergence of mindguards, were present in this decision-making process. These factors likely contributed to the flawed decision and subsequent disaster.

Arthur Schelsinger was portrayed as a dissenter in the discussion of groupthink in the Bay of Pigs case. This means that he was someone who expressed a different opinion or viewpoint from the majority. In the context of groupthink, dissenters play a crucial role in challenging the prevailing consensus and preventing the negative effects of groupthink, such as faulty decision-making and lack of critical thinking. By being a dissenter, Schelsinger likely provided alternative perspectives and raised important questions that helped to avoid potential pitfalls in the decision-making process.

The correct answer states that Adolf Eichmann's working conditions were compared to the way in which obedience rose when tasks were parceled out in Milgram's experiments. This comparison suggests that Eichmann's working conditions involved a hierarchical structure where individuals were given specific tasks and were expected to obey orders without question, similar to the obedience observed in Milgram's experiments. This implies that Eichmann's working conditions were characterized by a strict adherence to authority and a lack of personal autonomy.

According to Sigmund Freud, the 'pleasure principle' refers to both the sexual impulse and the aggressive impulse. Freud believed that human behavior is driven by these two primal instincts, seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. The sexual impulse represents the desire for pleasure and reproduction, while the aggressive impulse represents the drive to assert dominance and eliminate threats. These two impulses are considered fundamental aspects of human nature and play a significant role in shaping our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Freud's psychoanalytic theory revolves around understanding and balancing these impulses for psychological well-being.

Philip Zimbardo made use of M.C. Escher's 'Circle Limit IV' in his book The Lucifer Effect because it suggests that there is a thin line between good and evil, that we are all capable of evil, and that we should not categorize human beings as falling into fixed, unchangeable categories. This artwork serves as a visual representation of the complex nature of human behavior and the potential for individuals to cross moral boundaries. By incorporating this image, Zimbardo emphasizes the importance of understanding the situational factors that can influence human actions and the need to avoid simplistic judgments about individuals' inherent goodness or evilness.

In the film Groupthink, Roger Boisjoly was portrayed as a dissenter. This means that he was someone who voiced his disagreement or opposition to the prevailing group opinion or decision. In the context of the film, Boisjoly was shown as someone who expressed concerns about the safety of the Challenger space shuttle, despite facing resistance and pressure from his colleagues. His dissenting views ultimately proved to be valid, as the Challenger disaster occurred, highlighting the importance of dissenting voices in challenging groupthink and potentially preventing catastrophic outcomes.

When Milgram placed the subject doing the 'shocking' and the 'victim' in the same room, the observed level of obedience fell to about 20%. This suggests that when the subject was in close proximity to the victim, they were less likely to comply with the experimenter's orders to administer electric shocks. This could be due to the increased empathy and personal connection that comes from being physically near the victim, making it more difficult for the subject to harm them.