Political Psychology Final Exam

1. What happens when the 'ego' is threatened, according to Signmund Freud?

We allow the id free rein

We resort to defense mechanisms

We resort to the superego

None of the above

When the ego is threatened, according to Sigmund Freud, we tend to resort to defense mechanisms. These mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies that we use to protect ourselves from anxiety and maintain our self-esteem. They help us to cope with conflicts and reduce the discomfort caused by the ego being threatened. Defense mechanisms include denial, repression, projection, displacement, and many others. By using these mechanisms, we unconsciously distort reality or repress thoughts and feelings that are too difficult to handle.

Explanation

When the ego is threatened, according to Sigmund Freud, we tend to resort to defense mechanisms. These mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies that we use to protect ourselves from anxiety and maintain our self-esteem. They help us to cope with conflicts and reduce the discomfort caused by the ego being threatened. Defense mechanisms include denial, repression, projection, displacement, and many others. By using these mechanisms, we unconsciously distort reality or repress thoughts and feelings that are too difficult to handle.

2. The Phrase Tabula Rasa is latin for what?

Conditioning

Behavior

The Clear Mind

The Blank Slate

The phrase "Tabula Rasa" is a Latin term that translates to "The Blank Slate." This term refers to the philosophical concept that suggests that individuals are born with a mind that is free from any preconceived ideas or knowledge. It implies that one's mind is like an empty slate at birth, and all knowledge and experiences are acquired through learning and environmental influences. This concept has been influential in various fields, including psychology, philosophy, and education.

Explanation

The phrase "Tabula Rasa" is a Latin term that translates to "The Blank Slate." This term refers to the philosophical concept that suggests that individuals are born with a mind that is free from any preconceived ideas or knowledge. It implies that one's mind is like an empty slate at birth, and all knowledge and experiences are acquired through learning and environmental influences. This concept has been influential in various fields, including psychology, philosophy, and education.

3. Milgram argued that some of his subjects laughed during the experiments because:

Most of them thought his tricky experimental design amusing

It was a nervous reaction to stress

Most actually enjoyed shocking the learner

None of the above

Milgram argued that some of his subjects laughed during the experiments because it was a nervous reaction to stress. The participants were placed in a highly stressful situation where they were instructed to administer electric shocks to another person. Laughing can be a common response to alleviate tension and anxiety. It is likely that the subjects found the situation so overwhelming and uncomfortable that laughing became a coping mechanism for them. Therefore, the laughter can be seen as a manifestation of their nervousness in response to the stress of the experiment.

Explanation

Milgram argued that some of his subjects laughed during the experiments because it was a nervous reaction to stress. The participants were placed in a highly stressful situation where they were instructed to administer electric shocks to another person. Laughing can be a common response to alleviate tension and anxiety. It is likely that the subjects found the situation so overwhelming and uncomfortable that laughing became a coping mechanism for them. Therefore, the laughter can be seen as a manifestation of their nervousness in response to the stress of the experiment.

4. In class we argued that Oskar Schindler was a rather unusual 'rescuer' because:

His behavior in other areas of life wasn't particularly ethical

He was himself Jewish

He did not believe in dispositionism himself

He was an especially close friend of Adolf Eichmann

Oskar Schindler was considered an unusual rescuer because his behavior in other areas of life wasn't particularly ethical. This suggests that his actions to save Jewish lives during the Holocaust were not driven by a strong moral compass or a consistent ethical stance. It highlights the complexity of his character and raises questions about his motivations for saving lives.

Explanation

Oskar Schindler was considered an unusual rescuer because his behavior in other areas of life wasn't particularly ethical. This suggests that his actions to save Jewish lives during the Holocaust were not driven by a strong moral compass or a consistent ethical stance. It highlights the complexity of his character and raises questions about his motivations for saving lives.

5. Operant conditioning deals with the learning of:

Voluntary responses

Reflexes

Salivation

All of the above

Operant conditioning is a type of learning that focuses on voluntary responses. It involves the association between a behavior and its consequences, which can either reinforce or discourage the behavior. This type of conditioning is different from classical conditioning, which deals with reflexes and involuntary responses. Salivation, on the other hand, is a reflexive response that is not directly related to operant conditioning. Therefore, the correct answer is voluntary responses.

Explanation

Operant conditioning is a type of learning that focuses on voluntary responses. It involves the association between a behavior and its consequences, which can either reinforce or discourage the behavior. This type of conditioning is different from classical conditioning, which deals with reflexes and involuntary responses. Salivation, on the other hand, is a reflexive response that is not directly related to operant conditioning. Therefore, the correct answer is voluntary responses.

6. Classical conditioning deals with the learning of:

Involuntary responses

Voluntary responses

Salivation alone

None of the above

Classical conditioning is a type of learning that focuses on involuntary responses. It involves associating a neutral stimulus with a naturally occurring stimulus to create a learned response. This learned response is not under conscious control and is therefore considered involuntary. This is why classical conditioning is primarily concerned with the learning of involuntary responses rather than voluntary responses.

Explanation

Classical conditioning is a type of learning that focuses on involuntary responses. It involves associating a neutral stimulus with a naturally occurring stimulus to create a learned response. This learned response is not under conscious control and is therefore considered involuntary. This is why classical conditioning is primarily concerned with the learning of involuntary responses rather than voluntary responses.

7. Which of the following can be regarded as 'defense mechanisms' in Freud's theory?

Denial

Projection

Repression

All of the above

In Freud's theory, defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that individuals use to protect themselves from anxiety or distress. Denial is a defense mechanism where a person refuses to acknowledge a threatening or uncomfortable reality. Projection is when someone attributes their own unacceptable thoughts or feelings onto someone else. Repression involves pushing unwanted thoughts or memories into the unconscious mind. All three options - denial, projection, and repression - can be considered defense mechanisms according to Freud's theory.

Explanation

In Freud's theory, defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that individuals use to protect themselves from anxiety or distress. Denial is a defense mechanism where a person refuses to acknowledge a threatening or uncomfortable reality. Projection is when someone attributes their own unacceptable thoughts or feelings onto someone else. Repression involves pushing unwanted thoughts or memories into the unconscious mind. All three options - denial, projection, and repression - can be considered defense mechanisms according to Freud's theory.

8. What was the first main 'wave' in the study of political psychology?

Foreign-Policy decision making

International Politics

Personality Studies

Voting Behavior

The first main 'wave' in the study of political psychology was focused on personality studies. This wave emerged in the early 20th century and sought to understand how individual personalities influence political beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Researchers explored concepts such as authoritarianism, political ideology, and the role of personality traits in shaping political preferences. This wave laid the foundation for further research in political psychology and highlighted the importance of individual differences in understanding political phenomena.

Explanation

The first main 'wave' in the study of political psychology was focused on personality studies. This wave emerged in the early 20th century and sought to understand how individual personalities influence political beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Researchers explored concepts such as authoritarianism, political ideology, and the role of personality traits in shaping political preferences. This wave laid the foundation for further research in political psychology and highlighted the importance of individual differences in understanding political phenomena.

9. The Pavlov's dog experiment illustrated which form of behavioral conditioning?

Negative

Operant

Classical

Positive

The Pavlov's dog experiment illustrated classical conditioning. In this experiment, Pavlov conditioned dogs to associate the sound of a bell with the presentation of food. Eventually, the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell alone, even without the presence of food. This demonstrates classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus (the bell) becomes associated with a natural response (salivation) through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (food).

Explanation

The Pavlov's dog experiment illustrated classical conditioning. In this experiment, Pavlov conditioned dogs to associate the sound of a bell with the presentation of food. Eventually, the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell alone, even without the presence of food. This demonstrates classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus (the bell) becomes associated with a natural response (salivation) through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (food).

10. Why did roger Boisjoly warn that the 1986 Chellenger flight might be too risky to launch?

He did not think the national media were being fair

He was worried that the shuttle itself had been badly constructed

He was worried about the below-freezing temperatures that were forecast for the morning of the launch

He thought that too many of NASA's managers were 'running around like Chicken Little'

Roger Boisjoly warned that the 1986 Chellenger flight might be too risky to launch because he was worried about the below-freezing temperatures that were forecast for the morning of the launch.

Explanation

Roger Boisjoly warned that the 1986 Chellenger flight might be too risky to launch because he was worried about the below-freezing temperatures that were forecast for the morning of the launch.

11. In the Milgram obedience experiments, the supposed 'subject' who received the 'electrical shocks' was in fact:

The real subject of the experiment

Milgram himself

An accomplice of the experimenter

Someone who had no idea what the real purpose of the experiment was

The correct answer is "An accomplice of the experimenter." In the Milgram obedience experiments, the supposed 'subject' who received the 'electrical shocks' was actually a confederate, someone who was working with the experimenter. This confederate pretended to be a participant but was aware of the true purpose of the experiment. Their role was to act as if they were receiving painful shocks in order to elicit certain responses from the actual participants, who were the ones being studied.

Explanation

The correct answer is "An accomplice of the experimenter." In the Milgram obedience experiments, the supposed 'subject' who received the 'electrical shocks' was actually a confederate, someone who was working with the experimenter. This confederate pretended to be a participant but was aware of the true purpose of the experiment. Their role was to act as if they were receiving painful shocks in order to elicit certain responses from the actual participants, who were the ones being studied.

12. Which of the following might be a good idea in trying to minimize the occurrence of groupthink?

Stronger, more opinion-driven leadership

Bring in independent advisers from outside the group

Quicker consideration of options

Create a warmer, more 'clubby' atmosphere

Bringing in independent advisers from outside the group might be a good idea in trying to minimize the occurrence of groupthink because they can provide fresh perspectives and challenge the group's consensus. By having individuals who are not part of the group and have different backgrounds and experiences, it can help to prevent the group from becoming too homogeneous in their thinking and encourage diverse viewpoints. This can lead to more critical thinking, increased creativity, and better decision-making overall.

Explanation

Bringing in independent advisers from outside the group might be a good idea in trying to minimize the occurrence of groupthink because they can provide fresh perspectives and challenge the group's consensus. By having individuals who are not part of the group and have different backgrounds and experiences, it can help to prevent the group from becoming too homogeneous in their thinking and encourage diverse viewpoints. This can lead to more critical thinking, increased creativity, and better decision-making overall.

13. Why did one of Morton Thiokol's engineers warn that the 1986 Challenger flight might be too risky to launch?

He was worried about the below-freezing temperatures that were forecast for the morning of the launch

He was worried that the shuttle itself had been badly constructed

He did not think the national media were being fair

He thought that too many of NASA's managers were 'running around like chicken little'

The engineer's concern about the below-freezing temperatures is a valid reason for warning against the launch. Cold temperatures can affect the performance and integrity of the shuttle's components, including the O-rings, which were later found to be the cause of the Challenger disaster. The engineer's worry demonstrates an understanding of the potential risks and the need for caution in such conditions.

Explanation

The engineer's concern about the below-freezing temperatures is a valid reason for warning against the launch. Cold temperatures can affect the performance and integrity of the shuttle's components, including the O-rings, which were later found to be the cause of the Challenger disaster. The engineer's worry demonstrates an understanding of the potential risks and the need for caution in such conditions.

14. According to Sigmund Freud, which of the following acts as a mediator between the 'childlike' and 'moral' elements of our mental processes?

The ego

The id

The superego

None of the above

The ego, according to Sigmund Freud, acts as a mediator between the 'childlike' and 'moral' elements of our mental processes. It operates based on the reality principle, balancing the desires of the id and the moral constraints of the superego. The ego helps to find realistic and socially acceptable ways to fulfill our desires while considering the consequences and moral values.

Explanation

The ego, according to Sigmund Freud, acts as a mediator between the 'childlike' and 'moral' elements of our mental processes. It operates based on the reality principle, balancing the desires of the id and the moral constraints of the superego. The ego helps to find realistic and socially acceptable ways to fulfill our desires while considering the consequences and moral values.

15. According to Suedfeld and Tetlock, which of the following provides a good example of an individual with high integrative complexity?

George W. Bush

John F. Kennedy

Lyndon Johnson

John Foster Dulles

John F. Kennedy provides a good example of an individual with high integrative complexity because he was known for his ability to consider multiple perspectives and integrate different ideas and viewpoints. He was able to navigate complex issues and make decisions that took into account various factors and considerations. Kennedy's approach to problem-solving and decision-making demonstrated his high level of integrative complexity.

Explanation

John F. Kennedy provides a good example of an individual with high integrative complexity because he was known for his ability to consider multiple perspectives and integrate different ideas and viewpoints. He was able to navigate complex issues and make decisions that took into account various factors and considerations. Kennedy's approach to problem-solving and decision-making demonstrated his high level of integrative complexity.

16. The idea that decision-makers 'maximize their utility' is associated with which approach discussed in class?

Cognitive consistency theory

Homo Economicus

Schema Theory

Satisficing

The idea that decision-makers 'maximize their utility' is associated with the Homo Economicus approach discussed in class. Homo Economicus is an economic theory that assumes individuals make rational decisions by maximizing their own self-interest and utility. This theory suggests that decision-makers weigh the costs and benefits of different options and choose the one that maximizes their personal satisfaction or utility.

Explanation

The idea that decision-makers 'maximize their utility' is associated with the Homo Economicus approach discussed in class. Homo Economicus is an economic theory that assumes individuals make rational decisions by maximizing their own self-interest and utility. This theory suggests that decision-makers weigh the costs and benefits of different options and choose the one that maximizes their personal satisfaction or utility.

17. The segment of the film in search of ourselves which we watched in class portrays which of the following?

The early tug of war between eugenics and behaviorism

Behaviorism alone

Stanley Milgram's obedience experiments

Eugenics alone

The segment of the film in search of ourselves which we watched in class portrays the early tug of war between eugenics and behaviorism.

Explanation

The segment of the film in search of ourselves which we watched in class portrays the early tug of war between eugenics and behaviorism.

18. What happens when the 'ego' is threatened, according to Sigmund Freud?

We allow the id free rein

We resort to the superego

We resort to defense mechanism

We become conscious of all our unconscious processes

When the 'ego' is threatened, according to Sigmund Freud, we resort to defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies that the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety and maintain a sense of psychological balance. These mechanisms can include denial, repression, projection, and rationalization, among others. By employing defense mechanisms, the ego attempts to reduce or redirect the anxiety caused by the threat, allowing the individual to cope with the situation and protect their self-esteem.

Explanation

When the 'ego' is threatened, according to Sigmund Freud, we resort to defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies that the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety and maintain a sense of psychological balance. These mechanisms can include denial, repression, projection, and rationalization, among others. By employing defense mechanisms, the ego attempts to reduce or redirect the anxiety caused by the threat, allowing the individual to cope with the situation and protect their self-esteem.

19. Which of the following is potentially a problem for a situationist explanation of the Stanford experiment?

There were good guards and bad guards

Bags were placed on the heads of the prisoners

Sexual humiliation was used by the guards

The worst abuses occured on the night shift

A situationist explanation of the Stanford experiment suggests that people's behavior is primarily influenced by the situation they are in rather than their personal traits. However, the presence of both good and bad guards in the experiment indicates that individual differences and personal traits might have played a role in the behavior of the guards. This challenges the idea that the situation alone was responsible for their actions and suggests that individual characteristics also influenced their behavior.

Explanation

A situationist explanation of the Stanford experiment suggests that people's behavior is primarily influenced by the situation they are in rather than their personal traits. However, the presence of both good and bad guards in the experiment indicates that individual differences and personal traits might have played a role in the behavior of the guards. This challenges the idea that the situation alone was responsible for their actions and suggests that individual characteristics also influenced their behavior.

20. Woodrow Wilson's inflexibility in later life has been attriuted to which physiological cause?

Diabetes

A series of strokes

Sleep apnia

Syphilis

Woodrow Wilson's inflexibility in later life can be attributed to a series of strokes. Strokes can cause damage to the brain, leading to cognitive impairments and changes in behavior. Inflexibility is a common symptom of stroke-related brain damage, as it can affect a person's ability to adapt to new situations or consider alternative perspectives. Therefore, it is likely that Wilson's series of strokes contributed to his inflexibility in later life.

Explanation

Woodrow Wilson's inflexibility in later life can be attributed to a series of strokes. Strokes can cause damage to the brain, leading to cognitive impairments and changes in behavior. Inflexibility is a common symptom of stroke-related brain damage, as it can affect a person's ability to adapt to new situations or consider alternative perspectives. Therefore, it is likely that Wilson's series of strokes contributed to his inflexibility in later life.

21. Which of the following schools of thought would be most likely to subscribe to the notion of the tabula rasa?

Dispositionism

Milgram's School of situationism

Behaviorism

Supporters of the idea that people are born genetically 'wired' with certain attributes

Behaviorism is the most likely school of thought to subscribe to the notion of the tabula rasa. Behaviorism believes that all behavior is learned through conditioning and that individuals are born as a blank slate, with no innate characteristics or predispositions. This aligns with the concept of tabula rasa, which suggests that individuals are shaped solely by their environment and experiences.

Explanation

Behaviorism is the most likely school of thought to subscribe to the notion of the tabula rasa. Behaviorism believes that all behavior is learned through conditioning and that individuals are born as a blank slate, with no innate characteristics or predispositions. This aligns with the concept of tabula rasa, which suggests that individuals are shaped solely by their environment and experiences.

22. Harold Lasswell's argument about politicians is basically that:

They displace their public problems onto private life

They displace their private problems onto public life

They cannot be understood psychologically

Psychobiography always falls victim to the problem of reductionism

Harold Lasswell's argument suggests that politicians tend to project or transfer their personal issues onto their public life. This means that instead of addressing and resolving their private problems, they divert their attention and focus onto their political responsibilities. This behavior can potentially impact their decision-making, public image, and overall effectiveness as politicians.

Explanation

Harold Lasswell's argument suggests that politicians tend to project or transfer their personal issues onto their public life. This means that instead of addressing and resolving their private problems, they divert their attention and focus onto their political responsibilities. This behavior can potentially impact their decision-making, public image, and overall effectiveness as politicians.

23. 'Dispositionism' is best defined as the argument that:

Our behavior is shaped by forces beyond our control

Our own psychological values and beliefs shape our behavior

'The situation' affects our behavior somewhat

We often quickly dispose of arguments we disagree with

Dispositionism refers to the belief that our behavior is primarily shaped by our own psychological values and beliefs. This means that our actions and choices are influenced by our internal thoughts, attitudes, and perspectives rather than external factors or forces beyond our control.

Explanation

Dispositionism refers to the belief that our behavior is primarily shaped by our own psychological values and beliefs. This means that our actions and choices are influenced by our internal thoughts, attitudes, and perspectives rather than external factors or forces beyond our control.

24. The 'Lord of the Flies' effect was used in class in the discussion of what?

The tendency of Milgram's subjects to blindly obey

Difficulties with the rational actor model

Skinner's failed attempts to condition his subjects

The tendency of Zimbardo's subjects to 'go bad'

The 'Lord of the Flies' effect refers to the idea that in certain situations, individuals can become aggressive, violent, and lose their moral compass when there is a lack of authority and social norms. This effect was used in class to discuss the tendency of Zimbardo's subjects to 'go bad'. Zimbardo's famous Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated how even ordinary individuals can quickly adopt abusive and dehumanizing behavior when placed in a position of power and given the role of a prison guard. This highlights the impact of situational factors on human behavior and the potential for individuals to engage in harmful actions under certain circumstances.

Explanation

The 'Lord of the Flies' effect refers to the idea that in certain situations, individuals can become aggressive, violent, and lose their moral compass when there is a lack of authority and social norms. This effect was used in class to discuss the tendency of Zimbardo's subjects to 'go bad'. Zimbardo's famous Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated how even ordinary individuals can quickly adopt abusive and dehumanizing behavior when placed in a position of power and given the role of a prison guard. This highlights the impact of situational factors on human behavior and the potential for individuals to engage in harmful actions under certain circumstances.

25. The tendency of bomber pilots to concentrate on the technical aspects of their tasks, portrayed in the film hearts and minds, was compared in class to what?

The behavior of 'Little Albert'

The behavior of Stanley Milgram's obedient subjects

The behavior of B.F. Skinner's pigeons

The behavior of Stanley Milgram's disobedient subjects

In the film "Hearts and Minds," bomber pilots are portrayed as being focused primarily on the technical aspects of their tasks. This behavior is compared to the behavior of Stanley Milgram's obedient subjects. This suggests that like Milgram's subjects who followed instructions without questioning or resisting, the bomber pilots also exhibit a similar tendency to prioritize their tasks and follow orders without considering the moral or ethical implications of their actions.

Explanation

In the film "Hearts and Minds," bomber pilots are portrayed as being focused primarily on the technical aspects of their tasks. This behavior is compared to the behavior of Stanley Milgram's obedient subjects. This suggests that like Milgram's subjects who followed instructions without questioning or resisting, the bomber pilots also exhibit a similar tendency to prioritize their tasks and follow orders without considering the moral or ethical implications of their actions.

26. Solomon Asch's line experiments are generally supportive of which position?

Situationism

Behaviorism

Dispositionism

Anarchism

Solomon Asch's line experiments are generally supportive of the position of Situationism. These experiments demonstrated the power of social influence and the tendency of individuals to conform to the opinions and behaviors of a group, even when they know it is incorrect. This aligns with the principles of Situationism, which emphasizes the importance of situational factors in shaping human behavior, rather than internal traits or dispositions. Asch's experiments highlight how the social situation can override individual judgment and lead to conformity.

Explanation

Solomon Asch's line experiments are generally supportive of the position of Situationism. These experiments demonstrated the power of social influence and the tendency of individuals to conform to the opinions and behaviors of a group, even when they know it is incorrect. This aligns with the principles of Situationism, which emphasizes the importance of situational factors in shaping human behavior, rather than internal traits or dispositions. Asch's experiments highlight how the social situation can override individual judgment and lead to conformity.

27. The 'Lord of the Flies' effect was used in the class textbook in the discussion of what?

The tendency of Milgram's subjects to blindly obey

Difficulties with the rational actor model

The tendency of Zimbardo's subjects to 'go bad'

None of the above

The 'Lord of the Flies' effect refers to the idea that in certain situations, individuals may exhibit aggressive and violent behavior when there is a lack of authority or societal norms. This effect was used in the class textbook to discuss the tendency of Zimbardo's subjects to 'go bad'. Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated that when placed in a simulated prison environment, ordinary college students quickly adopted aggressive and abusive behavior towards their fellow participants, highlighting the influence of situational factors on individual behavior. This explanation aligns with the given correct answer.

Explanation

The 'Lord of the Flies' effect refers to the idea that in certain situations, individuals may exhibit aggressive and violent behavior when there is a lack of authority or societal norms. This effect was used in the class textbook to discuss the tendency of Zimbardo's subjects to 'go bad'. Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated that when placed in a simulated prison environment, ordinary college students quickly adopted aggressive and abusive behavior towards their fellow participants, highlighting the influence of situational factors on individual behavior. This explanation aligns with the given correct answer.

28. The Stanford experiments were used in the textbook to try to explain:

Conditions inside the Nevada prison system

Dick Cheney's accidental shooting of a hunting colleague

The Abu Ghraib scandal

The entire war in Iraq

The correct answer is "The Abu Ghraib scandal." The Stanford experiments were used in the textbook to try to explain the events and behaviors that occurred during the Abu Ghraib scandal. The experiments conducted by Stanford psychologist Philip Zimbardo shed light on the power of situational influences and how they can lead to unethical behavior, similar to what was observed in the scandal. The experiments demonstrated the potential for individuals to engage in abusive and dehumanizing behavior when placed in certain environments and given positions of authority.

Explanation

The correct answer is "The Abu Ghraib scandal." The Stanford experiments were used in the textbook to try to explain the events and behaviors that occurred during the Abu Ghraib scandal. The experiments conducted by Stanford psychologist Philip Zimbardo shed light on the power of situational influences and how they can lead to unethical behavior, similar to what was observed in the scandal. The experiments demonstrated the potential for individuals to engage in abusive and dehumanizing behavior when placed in certain environments and given positions of authority.

29. Which of the following is not true of the early years in the study of political psychology?

It was dominated by cognitive psychological approaches

It was dominated by personality studies

It was dominated by Freudian/psychoanalytics theory

One of its earliest advocates was the political scientist Harold Laswell

The statement that the early years in the study of political psychology were dominated by cognitive psychological approaches is not true. This means that cognitive psychological approaches did not dominate the field during its early years.

Explanation

The statement that the early years in the study of political psychology were dominated by cognitive psychological approaches is not true. This means that cognitive psychological approaches did not dominate the field during its early years.

30. Which of the following events led to the discovery of the 'bystander effect'?

The Cuban missile crisis

9/11

The murder of Kitty Genovese

Solomon Asch's experiments

The correct answer is the murder of Kitty Genovese. The murder of Kitty Genovese in 1964, where she was attacked and killed in front of her apartment building while multiple witnesses did nothing to intervene or call for help, brought attention to the phenomenon now known as the bystander effect. This event led researchers to study and understand why people are less likely to offer assistance in a group setting, leading to the discovery of the bystander effect.

Explanation

The correct answer is the murder of Kitty Genovese. The murder of Kitty Genovese in 1964, where she was attacked and killed in front of her apartment building while multiple witnesses did nothing to intervene or call for help, brought attention to the phenomenon now known as the bystander effect. This event led researchers to study and understand why people are less likely to offer assistance in a group setting, leading to the discovery of the bystander effect.

31. The notion that our behavior is 'fixed at birth' is most compatible with which of the following?

Behaviorism

Eugenics

Situationism

Bounded Rationality

Eugenics is the belief that human behavior and traits are determined by genetics and that these traits can be improved through selective breeding. This aligns with the notion that our behavior is 'fixed at birth' because it suggests that our behavior is predetermined by our genetic makeup and cannot be changed or influenced by external factors.

Explanation

Eugenics is the belief that human behavior and traits are determined by genetics and that these traits can be improved through selective breeding. This aligns with the notion that our behavior is 'fixed at birth' because it suggests that our behavior is predetermined by our genetic makeup and cannot be changed or influenced by external factors.

32. The phrase 'banality of evil' was created by:

Stanley Milgram in Obedience to Authority

Hannah Arendt in Eichmann in Jerusalem

Anthony Burgess in A Clockwork Orange

B.F. Skinner in Walden Two

The phrase 'banality of evil' was coined by Hannah Arendt in her book "Eichmann in Jerusalem." Arendt used this phrase to describe her observations of Adolf Eichmann, a Nazi officer responsible for orchestrating the Holocaust. She argued that Eichmann's actions were not driven by extreme hatred or malicious intent, but rather by a thoughtless adherence to bureaucratic procedures and a lack of moral responsibility. Arendt's concept of the banality of evil suggests that evil acts can be committed by ordinary individuals who are simply following orders or conforming to societal norms without critically questioning their actions.

Explanation

The phrase 'banality of evil' was coined by Hannah Arendt in her book "Eichmann in Jerusalem." Arendt used this phrase to describe her observations of Adolf Eichmann, a Nazi officer responsible for orchestrating the Holocaust. She argued that Eichmann's actions were not driven by extreme hatred or malicious intent, but rather by a thoughtless adherence to bureaucratic procedures and a lack of moral responsibility. Arendt's concept of the banality of evil suggests that evil acts can be committed by ordinary individuals who are simply following orders or conforming to societal norms without critically questioning their actions.

33. The notion that we experience discomfort when confronted with information which doesn''t 'fit' our existing beliefs is primarily associated with:

Psychoanalytic theory

Cognitive consistency theory

Attribution theory

Groupthink

The notion that we experience discomfort when confronted with information that doesn't align with our existing beliefs is primarily associated with cognitive consistency theory. This theory suggests that individuals have a natural tendency to seek consistency between their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. When faced with information that challenges this consistency, cognitive dissonance occurs, leading to discomfort and a motivation to reduce the dissonance by either changing our beliefs or minimizing the importance of the conflicting information.

Explanation

The notion that we experience discomfort when confronted with information that doesn't align with our existing beliefs is primarily associated with cognitive consistency theory. This theory suggests that individuals have a natural tendency to seek consistency between their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. When faced with information that challenges this consistency, cognitive dissonance occurs, leading to discomfort and a motivation to reduce the dissonance by either changing our beliefs or minimizing the importance of the conflicting information.

34. The notion that we're all 'labellers' or 'categorizers' is associated mainly with:

Attribution theory

Schema theory

Cognitive consistency theory

Groupthink

Schema theory suggests that we are all "labellers" or "categorizers" because it proposes that our minds organize and categorize information into mental frameworks called schemas. Schemas help us make sense of the world by allowing us to quickly interpret and understand new information based on our existing knowledge and experiences. This process of labeling and categorizing is a fundamental aspect of schema theory, making it the most relevant explanation for the notion mentioned in the question.

Explanation

Schema theory suggests that we are all "labellers" or "categorizers" because it proposes that our minds organize and categorize information into mental frameworks called schemas. Schemas help us make sense of the world by allowing us to quickly interpret and understand new information based on our existing knowledge and experiences. This process of labeling and categorizing is a fundamental aspect of schema theory, making it the most relevant explanation for the notion mentioned in the question.

35. According to the class textbook, all of the following are similarities between Abu Ghraib and the Stanford experiments, except:

Sexual humiliation was used by the guards

Trophy photos were taken

A 'John Wayne' figure emerged

Bags were placed on the heads of prisoners

The given answer is "Trophy photos were taken". This means that trophy photos were not taken in either Abu Ghraib or the Stanford experiments. The other options mentioned in the question - sexual humiliation being used by the guards, a 'John Wayne' figure emerging, and bags being placed on the heads of prisoners - were similarities between Abu Ghraib and the Stanford experiments.

Explanation

The given answer is "Trophy photos were taken". This means that trophy photos were not taken in either Abu Ghraib or the Stanford experiments. The other options mentioned in the question - sexual humiliation being used by the guards, a 'John Wayne' figure emerging, and bags being placed on the heads of prisoners - were similarities between Abu Ghraib and the Stanford experiments.

36. The example of the soccer player George Best is used in the textbook primarily to show:

The effectiveness of classical conditioning

The fact that conditioning often fails

The moral problems associated with conditioning

The effectiveness of operant conditioning

The example of the soccer player George Best is used in the textbook primarily to show the fact that conditioning often fails. This suggests that even though conditioning techniques may be employed, they do not always yield the desired results. George Best was a talented soccer player but struggled with alcoholism, which indicates that conditioning was not successful in preventing or overcoming his addiction. This example serves as a reminder that conditioning is not always effective and can have limitations.

Explanation

The example of the soccer player George Best is used in the textbook primarily to show the fact that conditioning often fails. This suggests that even though conditioning techniques may be employed, they do not always yield the desired results. George Best was a talented soccer player but struggled with alcoholism, which indicates that conditioning was not successful in preventing or overcoming his addiction. This example serves as a reminder that conditioning is not always effective and can have limitations.

37. How much difference did gender make to the behavior of Milgram's subjects in his famous obedience experiments?

Men were substantially more likely than women to obey authority

Men were slightly more likely than women to obey authority

Women were more likely than men to obey authority

Gender made no difference

In Milgram's famous obedience experiments, the correct answer is that gender made no difference. This means that there was no significant variation in the behavior of men and women when it came to obeying authority. The study suggests that both genders were equally likely to comply with the instructions given by the authority figure in the experiments.

Explanation

In Milgram's famous obedience experiments, the correct answer is that gender made no difference. This means that there was no significant variation in the behavior of men and women when it came to obeying authority. The study suggests that both genders were equally likely to comply with the instructions given by the authority figure in the experiments.

38. When did political psychology become widely available as a university course in its own right?

The 1990s

The 1940s

The 1970s

The 1920s

Political psychology became widely available as a university course in its own right in the 1970s. This suggests that prior to this decade, political psychology was not recognized as a distinct field of study within universities. The emergence of political psychology as a separate discipline in the 1970s highlights the growing recognition of the importance of understanding the psychological factors that influence political behavior and decision-making.

Explanation

Political psychology became widely available as a university course in its own right in the 1970s. This suggests that prior to this decade, political psychology was not recognized as a distinct field of study within universities. The emergence of political psychology as a separate discipline in the 1970s highlights the growing recognition of the importance of understanding the psychological factors that influence political behavior and decision-making.

39. Which of the following is true of authoritarian personality theory?

Its strongest supporter was Stanley Milgram

It blames the characteristics of Germans themselves for the Holocaust

It argues that situational forces caused the Holocaust

It argues that most ordinary

The authoritarian personality theory suggests that the characteristics of Germans themselves were to blame for the Holocaust. This theory proposes that individuals with authoritarian personalities are more likely to follow orders from authority figures, even if those orders involve committing immoral or unethical acts. Therefore, the theory argues that it was the characteristics of the German people, specifically their susceptibility to authoritarianism, that contributed to the occurrence of the Holocaust.

Explanation

The authoritarian personality theory suggests that the characteristics of Germans themselves were to blame for the Holocaust. This theory proposes that individuals with authoritarian personalities are more likely to follow orders from authority figures, even if those orders involve committing immoral or unethical acts. Therefore, the theory argues that it was the characteristics of the German people, specifically their susceptibility to authoritarianism, that contributed to the occurrence of the Holocaust.

40. JFK's handling of the Cuban missile crisis was presented in the textbook as a good example of:

Dispositionism

Situationism

Homo Economicus

Freudian psychoanalytic theory

The correct answer is Dispositionism. Dispositionism refers to the belief that an individual's behavior is primarily influenced by their internal traits, characteristics, and dispositions. JFK's handling of the Cuban missile crisis can be seen as a good example of dispositionism because he demonstrated strong leadership, decision-making skills, and a calm demeanor during a highly stressful and dangerous situation. This suggests that JFK's actions were influenced by his personal qualities and traits rather than external situational factors.

Explanation

The correct answer is Dispositionism. Dispositionism refers to the belief that an individual's behavior is primarily influenced by their internal traits, characteristics, and dispositions. JFK's handling of the Cuban missile crisis can be seen as a good example of dispositionism because he demonstrated strong leadership, decision-making skills, and a calm demeanor during a highly stressful and dangerous situation. This suggests that JFK's actions were influenced by his personal qualities and traits rather than external situational factors.

41. According to Sigmund Freud, the 'pleasure principle' refers to which of the following?

The sexual impulse

The aggressive impulse

Both A and B

His own lifelong love of cigars

According to Sigmund Freud, the 'pleasure principle' refers to both the sexual impulse and the aggressive impulse. Freud believed that human behavior is driven by these two primal instincts, seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. The sexual impulse represents the desire for pleasure and reproduction, while the aggressive impulse represents the drive to assert dominance and eliminate threats. These two impulses are considered fundamental aspects of human nature and play a significant role in shaping our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Freud's psychoanalytic theory revolves around understanding and balancing these impulses for psychological well-being.

Explanation

According to Sigmund Freud, the 'pleasure principle' refers to both the sexual impulse and the aggressive impulse. Freud believed that human behavior is driven by these two primal instincts, seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. The sexual impulse represents the desire for pleasure and reproduction, while the aggressive impulse represents the drive to assert dominance and eliminate threats. These two impulses are considered fundamental aspects of human nature and play a significant role in shaping our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Freud's psychoanalytic theory revolves around understanding and balancing these impulses for psychological well-being.

42. The notion that human beings generally 'satisfice' when they make decisions is associated with:

Homo Economicus

Homo Psychologicus

Cognitive consistency theory

The rational actor approach

The notion that human beings generally 'satisfice' when they make decisions is associated with Homo Psychologicus. This concept suggests that individuals often settle for satisfactory or "good enough" options rather than trying to maximize their outcomes. It recognizes that human decision-making is influenced by psychological factors such as emotions, biases, and cognitive limitations, which may lead to suboptimal choices. This contrasts with the rational actor approach, which assumes that individuals always make decisions based on a rational analysis of costs and benefits.

Explanation

The notion that human beings generally 'satisfice' when they make decisions is associated with Homo Psychologicus. This concept suggests that individuals often settle for satisfactory or "good enough" options rather than trying to maximize their outcomes. It recognizes that human decision-making is influenced by psychological factors such as emotions, biases, and cognitive limitations, which may lead to suboptimal choices. This contrasts with the rational actor approach, which assumes that individuals always make decisions based on a rational analysis of costs and benefits.

43. The Stanford experiments have been criticized on the grounds that:

The chief experimenter was also the 'warden'

They may not have been ethical

There was insufficient variation in the experimental conditions to draw reliable conclusions

All of the above

The correct answer is "All of the above." This means that all of the given statements are true and contribute to the criticisms of the Stanford experiments. The fact that the chief experimenter was also the 'warden' raises concerns about potential bias and lack of impartiality. The ethical concerns suggest that the experiments may have violated ethical guidelines, potentially causing harm to the participants. Lastly, the criticism regarding insufficient variation in experimental conditions implies that the results may not be generalizable or reliable.

Explanation

The correct answer is "All of the above." This means that all of the given statements are true and contribute to the criticisms of the Stanford experiments. The fact that the chief experimenter was also the 'warden' raises concerns about potential bias and lack of impartiality. The ethical concerns suggest that the experiments may have violated ethical guidelines, potentially causing harm to the participants. Lastly, the criticism regarding insufficient variation in experimental conditions implies that the results may not be generalizable or reliable.

44. In the film Groupthink that we watched in class, Roger Boisjoly was portrayed as:

A mindguard

A dissenter

A paranoid

A narcissist

In the film Groupthink, Roger Boisjoly was portrayed as a dissenter. This means that he was someone who voiced his disagreement or opposition to the prevailing group opinion or decision. In the context of the film, Boisjoly was shown as someone who expressed concerns about the safety of the Challenger space shuttle, despite facing resistance and pressure from his colleagues. His dissenting views ultimately proved to be valid, as the Challenger disaster occurred, highlighting the importance of dissenting voices in challenging groupthink and potentially preventing catastrophic outcomes.

Explanation

In the film Groupthink, Roger Boisjoly was portrayed as a dissenter. This means that he was someone who voiced his disagreement or opposition to the prevailing group opinion or decision. In the context of the film, Boisjoly was shown as someone who expressed concerns about the safety of the Challenger space shuttle, despite facing resistance and pressure from his colleagues. His dissenting views ultimately proved to be valid, as the Challenger disaster occurred, highlighting the importance of dissenting voices in challenging groupthink and potentially preventing catastrophic outcomes.

45. Which of the following books claims that the failure of the Senate to pass the League of Nations Treaty stemmed from the president's psychological shortcomings?

Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream

Woodrow Wilson and Colonel house

The Dysfunctional President

Bush on the Couch

The correct answer is "Woodrow Wilson and Colonel House" because this book claims that the failure of the Senate to pass the League of Nations Treaty was due to the president's psychological shortcomings.

Explanation

The correct answer is "Woodrow Wilson and Colonel House" because this book claims that the failure of the Senate to pass the League of Nations Treaty was due to the president's psychological shortcomings.

46. The working conditions of Adolf Eichmann were compared to what in class?

Those of Oskar Schindler

The way in which obedience fell when tasks were parceled out in Milgram's experiments

The way in which obedience rose when tasks were parceled out in Milgram's experiments

Those of Hannah Arendt

The correct answer states that Adolf Eichmann's working conditions were compared to the way in which obedience rose when tasks were parceled out in Milgram's experiments. This comparison suggests that Eichmann's working conditions involved a hierarchical structure where individuals were given specific tasks and were expected to obey orders without question, similar to the obedience observed in Milgram's experiments. This implies that Eichmann's working conditions were characterized by a strict adherence to authority and a lack of personal autonomy.

Explanation

The correct answer states that Adolf Eichmann's working conditions were compared to the way in which obedience rose when tasks were parceled out in Milgram's experiments. This comparison suggests that Eichmann's working conditions involved a hierarchical structure where individuals were given specific tasks and were expected to obey orders without question, similar to the obedience observed in Milgram's experiments. This implies that Eichmann's working conditions were characterized by a strict adherence to authority and a lack of personal autonomy.

47. When Milgram placed the subject doing the 'shocking' and the 'victim' in the same room, what happened to the observed level of obedience?

It rose markedly to 80%

It fell to about 20%

It rose only slightly

It stayed the same

When Milgram placed the subject doing the 'shocking' and the 'victim' in the same room, the observed level of obedience fell to about 20%. This suggests that when the subject was in close proximity to the victim, they were less likely to comply with the experimenter's orders to administer electric shocks. This could be due to the increased empathy and personal connection that comes from being physically near the victim, making it more difficult for the subject to harm them.

Explanation

When Milgram placed the subject doing the 'shocking' and the 'victim' in the same room, the observed level of obedience fell to about 20%. This suggests that when the subject was in close proximity to the victim, they were less likely to comply with the experimenter's orders to administer electric shocks. This could be due to the increased empathy and personal connection that comes from being physically near the victim, making it more difficult for the subject to harm them.

48. Which of the following argues that ordinary voters really aren't that sophisticated , and tend to rely on long-term voting habits instead?

The Prospective Voting School

The Minessota School

The Issue Voting School

The Party Identification School

The Party Identification School argues that ordinary voters are not very sophisticated and tend to rely on long-term voting habits instead. This means that voters tend to align themselves with a particular political party and vote for candidates from that party consistently, without considering specific issues or candidates' qualifications. This theory suggests that voters' party identification plays a significant role in their voting behavior, rather than making informed decisions based on candidates' positions or policies.

Explanation

The Party Identification School argues that ordinary voters are not very sophisticated and tend to rely on long-term voting habits instead. This means that voters tend to align themselves with a particular political party and vote for candidates from that party consistently, without considering specific issues or candidates' qualifications. This theory suggests that voters' party identification plays a significant role in their voting behavior, rather than making informed decisions based on candidates' positions or policies.

49. According to the textbook and classes, why did Philip Zimbardo make use of M.C. Escher's 'Circle Limit IV' in his book The Lucifer Effect?

It suggests that there is a thin line between good and evil

It suggests that we are all capable of evil

It suggests that we should not categorize human beings as falling into fixed, unchangeable categories

All of the above

Philip Zimbardo made use of M.C. Escher's 'Circle Limit IV' in his book The Lucifer Effect because it suggests that there is a thin line between good and evil, that we are all capable of evil, and that we should not categorize human beings as falling into fixed, unchangeable categories. This artwork serves as a visual representation of the complex nature of human behavior and the potential for individuals to cross moral boundaries. By incorporating this image, Zimbardo emphasizes the importance of understanding the situational factors that can influence human actions and the need to avoid simplistic judgments about individuals' inherent goodness or evilness.

Explanation

Philip Zimbardo made use of M.C. Escher's 'Circle Limit IV' in his book The Lucifer Effect because it suggests that there is a thin line between good and evil, that we are all capable of evil, and that we should not categorize human beings as falling into fixed, unchangeable categories. This artwork serves as a visual representation of the complex nature of human behavior and the potential for individuals to cross moral boundaries. By incorporating this image, Zimbardo emphasizes the importance of understanding the situational factors that can influence human actions and the need to avoid simplistic judgments about individuals' inherent goodness or evilness.

50. The essence of Anthony Burgess's commentary on behaviorism is basically which of the following?

The ability to choose is what makes us human

Conditioning can never actually work

Rape and violence are actually socially desirable

Human choice is an illusion

In Anthony Burgess's commentary on behaviorism, he argues that the ability to choose is what distinguishes humans from other beings. This implies that human beings have free will and are not solely determined by external stimuli or conditioning. Burgess suggests that our capacity to make choices is a fundamental aspect of our humanity.

Explanation

In Anthony Burgess's commentary on behaviorism, he argues that the ability to choose is what distinguishes humans from other beings. This implies that human beings have free will and are not solely determined by external stimuli or conditioning. Burgess suggests that our capacity to make choices is a fundamental aspect of our humanity.

51. If you were sitting in a movie theater which caught fire and literally everone ecavcuated the building immediately, this would be an especially good example of:

Bounded rationality

Satisficing

Dispositionism

Situationism

The given scenario of a movie theater catching fire and everyone evacuating immediately exemplifies situationism. Situationism refers to the idea that people's behavior is largely influenced by the situation or context they are in, rather than their personal dispositions or traits. In this case, the situation of a fire in the theater prompts everyone to prioritize their safety and evacuate, regardless of their individual characteristics or decision-making processes.

Explanation

The given scenario of a movie theater catching fire and everyone evacuating immediately exemplifies situationism. Situationism refers to the idea that people's behavior is largely influenced by the situation or context they are in, rather than their personal dispositions or traits. In this case, the situation of a fire in the theater prompts everyone to prioritize their safety and evacuate, regardless of their individual characteristics or decision-making processes.

52. The so-called 'bad-barrel' theory is a good example of:

Analogical reasoning

Cognitivism

Situationism

Dispositionism

Situationism is the correct answer because the "bad-barrel" theory suggests that people's behavior is primarily influenced by their environment or the situation they are in, rather than their individual disposition or character. This theory challenges the idea of dispositionism, which posits that behavior is primarily determined by an individual's internal traits or personality. Situationism emphasizes the importance of external factors in shaping behavior and highlights the role of situational factors in determining actions and decisions.

Explanation

Situationism is the correct answer because the "bad-barrel" theory suggests that people's behavior is primarily influenced by their environment or the situation they are in, rather than their individual disposition or character. This theory challenges the idea of dispositionism, which posits that behavior is primarily determined by an individual's internal traits or personality. Situationism emphasizes the importance of external factors in shaping behavior and highlights the role of situational factors in determining actions and decisions.

53. All of these symptoms emerged in the 1986 Challenger decision-making, except:

The decision-makers accept a realistic appraisal of the risks

Forceful pressure is exerted on the doubter

Time pressure and stress is present

Mindguards emerge

In the 1986 Challenger decision-making, all of the given symptoms emerged except for the decision-makers accepting a realistic appraisal of the risks. This means that instead of acknowledging and considering the actual risks involved, the decision-makers likely downplayed or ignored them. The other symptoms, such as forceful pressure on doubters, time pressure and stress, and the emergence of mindguards, were present in this decision-making process. These factors likely contributed to the flawed decision and subsequent disaster.

Explanation

In the 1986 Challenger decision-making, all of the given symptoms emerged except for the decision-makers accepting a realistic appraisal of the risks. This means that instead of acknowledging and considering the actual risks involved, the decision-makers likely downplayed or ignored them. The other symptoms, such as forceful pressure on doubters, time pressure and stress, and the emergence of mindguards, were present in this decision-making process. These factors likely contributed to the flawed decision and subsequent disaster.

54. In the discussion of groupthink in the Bay of Pigs case, Arthur Schelsinger was portrayed as:

A mindguard

A dissenter

A paranoid

A narcissist

Arthur Schelsinger was portrayed as a dissenter in the discussion of groupthink in the Bay of Pigs case. This means that he was someone who expressed a different opinion or viewpoint from the majority. In the context of groupthink, dissenters play a crucial role in challenging the prevailing consensus and preventing the negative effects of groupthink, such as faulty decision-making and lack of critical thinking. By being a dissenter, Schelsinger likely provided alternative perspectives and raised important questions that helped to avoid potential pitfalls in the decision-making process.

Explanation

Arthur Schelsinger was portrayed as a dissenter in the discussion of groupthink in the Bay of Pigs case. This means that he was someone who expressed a different opinion or viewpoint from the majority. In the context of groupthink, dissenters play a crucial role in challenging the prevailing consensus and preventing the negative effects of groupthink, such as faulty decision-making and lack of critical thinking. By being a dissenter, Schelsinger likely provided alternative perspectives and raised important questions that helped to avoid potential pitfalls in the decision-making process.

55. The leading word of the 'Party Identification' school was:

Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream

The American Voter

Woodrow Wilson and colonel House

The Dysfunctional president

The correct answer is "The American Voter." The leading word of the 'Party Identification' school refers to the influential book titled "The American Voter." This book, written by Angus Campbell, Philip Converse, Warren Miller, and Donald Stokes, was published in 1960 and had a significant impact on the study of political behavior. It introduced the concept of party identification and argued that voters tend to develop long-term partisan attachments that influence their voting behavior. The book's findings and theories became foundational in the field of political science.

Explanation

The correct answer is "The American Voter." The leading word of the 'Party Identification' school refers to the influential book titled "The American Voter." This book, written by Angus Campbell, Philip Converse, Warren Miller, and Donald Stokes, was published in 1960 and had a significant impact on the study of political behavior. It introduced the concept of party identification and argued that voters tend to develop long-term partisan attachments that influence their voting behavior. The book's findings and theories became foundational in the field of political science.

56. Herbert Simon disputed the notion that individuals are fully rational in the sense assumed in many economic models. What concept did he develop instead to describe how individuals reason in the real world?

Non-rationality

Comprehensive rationality

Bounded rationality

Irrational rationality

Herbert Simon developed the concept of bounded rationality to describe how individuals reason in the real world. Bounded rationality suggests that individuals have limitations in their cognitive abilities and information processing capabilities, leading to decision-making that is not fully rational. This concept acknowledges that individuals make decisions based on limited information, time constraints, and cognitive biases, rather than following the assumptions of comprehensive rationality that many economic models rely on. Bounded rationality recognizes that individuals aim to make rational decisions within the constraints they face in the real world.

Explanation

Herbert Simon developed the concept of bounded rationality to describe how individuals reason in the real world. Bounded rationality suggests that individuals have limitations in their cognitive abilities and information processing capabilities, leading to decision-making that is not fully rational. This concept acknowledges that individuals make decisions based on limited information, time constraints, and cognitive biases, rather than following the assumptions of comprehensive rationality that many economic models rely on. Bounded rationality recognizes that individuals aim to make rational decisions within the constraints they face in the real world.

57. When Roger Boisjoly's boss accused him of "hollering at the sky like chicken little", the boss was essentially acting as what, according to the theory of groupthink?

A corporate stooge

A mindguard

A dissenter

A brutal critic of pupular children's movies

According to the theory of groupthink, a mindguard is someone who shields the group from dissenting opinions or information that may challenge the group's consensus. In this scenario, Roger Boisjoly's boss accusing him of "hollering at the sky like chicken little" suggests that the boss was acting as a mindguard by dismissing Boisjoly's concerns and preventing them from being considered by the group.

Explanation

According to the theory of groupthink, a mindguard is someone who shields the group from dissenting opinions or information that may challenge the group's consensus. In this scenario, Roger Boisjoly's boss accusing him of "hollering at the sky like chicken little" suggests that the boss was acting as a mindguard by dismissing Boisjoly's concerns and preventing them from being considered by the group.

58. Justin Frank attributes which president's personality traits to a cold, unfeeling mother and an absentee father?

Bill Clinton

Jimmy Carter

George W. Bush

Richard Nixon

Justin Frank attributes George W. Bush's personality traits to a cold, unfeeling mother and an absentee father.

Explanation

Justin Frank attributes George W. Bush's personality traits to a cold, unfeeling mother and an absentee father.

59. The bush administration's view that the events at Abu Ghraib were attributable to 'a few bad apples' is an example of:

An objectively false statement

Situationism

Dispositionism

None of the above

The bush administration's view that the events at Abu Ghraib were attributable to 'a few bad apples' is an example of dispositionism. Dispositionism is the belief that individual behavior is primarily determined by internal characteristics, such as personality traits or inherent qualities, rather than external factors or situational influences. In this case, the administration is attributing the misconduct to the personal disposition of a few individuals, rather than acknowledging any systemic issues or external factors that may have contributed to the events at Abu Ghraib.

Explanation

The bush administration's view that the events at Abu Ghraib were attributable to 'a few bad apples' is an example of dispositionism. Dispositionism is the belief that individual behavior is primarily determined by internal characteristics, such as personality traits or inherent qualities, rather than external factors or situational influences. In this case, the administration is attributing the misconduct to the personal disposition of a few individuals, rather than acknowledging any systemic issues or external factors that may have contributed to the events at Abu Ghraib.

60. The process through which a group reaches a hasty or premature consensus and the group then becomes closed to outside ideas is known as:

Bureaucratic politics

Doublethink

Groupthink

Doublespeak

Groupthink is the correct answer because it refers to the phenomenon where a group of people, in an attempt to achieve consensus and maintain harmony, make decisions without critically evaluating alternative viewpoints or considering potential risks. This often leads to flawed decision-making and the exclusion of dissenting opinions. The term "groupthink" was coined by social psychologist Irving Janis to describe this process.

Explanation

Groupthink is the correct answer because it refers to the phenomenon where a group of people, in an attempt to achieve consensus and maintain harmony, make decisions without critically evaluating alternative viewpoints or considering potential risks. This often leads to flawed decision-making and the exclusion of dissenting opinions. The term "groupthink" was coined by social psychologist Irving Janis to describe this process.

61. Using theory of groupthink, 'domestication' is best defined the process by which:

Dogs are trained

The advice of dissenters comes to be devalued

Advocates become devils

People turn into mindguards

The theory of groupthink suggests that in a cohesive group, the desire for harmony and conformity can lead to the devaluation or dismissal of dissenting opinions or alternative viewpoints. This can happen through various processes such as pressure to conform, self-censorship, or the influence of group leaders. In the context of the question, the process of "domestication" can be understood as a metaphorical representation of how the advice or opinions of dissenters are gradually devalued or ignored within a group setting.

Explanation

The theory of groupthink suggests that in a cohesive group, the desire for harmony and conformity can lead to the devaluation or dismissal of dissenting opinions or alternative viewpoints. This can happen through various processes such as pressure to conform, self-censorship, or the influence of group leaders. In the context of the question, the process of "domestication" can be understood as a metaphorical representation of how the advice or opinions of dissenters are gradually devalued or ignored within a group setting.

62. The existence of 'whistleblowers' like Clive Ponting and Joseph Derby is used in the main class text as testimony to the power of:

Situationism

Bounded Rationality

Dispositionism

Moral Cowardice

The existence of 'whistleblowers' like Clive Ponting and Joseph Derby is used in the main class text as testimony to the power of dispositionism. Dispositionism refers to the belief that individuals' behavior is primarily determined by their internal dispositions or personality traits. In this context, the presence of whistleblowers who risk their careers and personal safety to expose wrongdoing suggests that they possess a strong disposition towards truth-telling and ethical behavior, highlighting the power of individual dispositions in shaping actions and choices.

Explanation

The existence of 'whistleblowers' like Clive Ponting and Joseph Derby is used in the main class text as testimony to the power of dispositionism. Dispositionism refers to the belief that individuals' behavior is primarily determined by their internal dispositions or personality traits. In this context, the presence of whistleblowers who risk their careers and personal safety to expose wrongdoing suggests that they possess a strong disposition towards truth-telling and ethical behavior, highlighting the power of individual dispositions in shaping actions and choices.

63. Harold Lasswell's main argument in much of his work was that:

The 'cognitive revolution' is transforming how we view political events

Schemas are used to store information in memory

Sigmund Freud's theories cannot be used to understand politics

The 'political personality' results from the displacement of private problems onto public life

Harold Lasswell's main argument in much of his work was that the 'political personality' results from the displacement of private problems onto public life. This means that individuals often project their personal issues and conflicts onto the political sphere, which can influence their political beliefs and actions. Lasswell believed that understanding the psychological motivations behind political behavior is crucial for comprehending political events and dynamics. By examining how personal problems manifest in public life, Lasswell aimed to provide insights into the complexities of politics and human behavior.

Explanation

Harold Lasswell's main argument in much of his work was that the 'political personality' results from the displacement of private problems onto public life. This means that individuals often project their personal issues and conflicts onto the political sphere, which can influence their political beliefs and actions. Lasswell believed that understanding the psychological motivations behind political behavior is crucial for comprehending political events and dynamics. By examining how personal problems manifest in public life, Lasswell aimed to provide insights into the complexities of politics and human behavior.

64. When Milgram divided up responsibility for 'shocking' the victim among several individuals, what happened to the level of observed obedience?

It fell slightly

It stayed the same

It fell markedly

It rose

When Milgram divided up responsibility for 'shocking' the victim among several individuals, the level of observed obedience rose. This means that when the responsibility was shared among multiple people, the participants were more likely to comply with the instructions and continue administering shocks. This could be due to diffusion of responsibility, as individuals may feel less accountable when others are also involved in the decision-making process.

Explanation

When Milgram divided up responsibility for 'shocking' the victim among several individuals, the level of observed obedience rose. This means that when the responsibility was shared among multiple people, the participants were more likely to comply with the instructions and continue administering shocks. This could be due to diffusion of responsibility, as individuals may feel less accountable when others are also involved in the decision-making process.

65. The 'bachelor party' example was used in class mainly to show:

How unsophisticated computers are relative to the human brain

How hard it is to find a suitable partner at parties

How easy it is to find a suitable partner at parties

Why you should never date the Archbishop of Canterbury

The 'bachelor party' example was used in class to demonstrate the limitations of computers compared to the human brain. This suggests that computers are not as advanced or sophisticated as the human brain when it comes to certain tasks, such as finding a suitable partner at parties. The example likely highlighted the complexity of human interactions and decision-making processes that computers struggle to replicate.

Explanation

The 'bachelor party' example was used in class to demonstrate the limitations of computers compared to the human brain. This suggests that computers are not as advanced or sophisticated as the human brain when it comes to certain tasks, such as finding a suitable partner at parties. The example likely highlighted the complexity of human interactions and decision-making processes that computers struggle to replicate.

66. Which of the following is ragarded as the leasing cause of groupthink?

Existence of norms requiring methodical procedures

Bringing in too much outside advice

Quiet, non-opinionated leadership

High cohesiveness of the group

High cohesiveness of the group is regarded as the leading cause of groupthink. When a group is highly cohesive, there is a strong sense of unity and harmony among its members. This can lead to a suppression of dissenting opinions and a tendency to conform to the group's consensus, even if it is flawed or irrational. The desire to maintain group harmony and avoid conflict can override critical thinking and independent decision-making, resulting in poor decision-making and a lack of consideration for alternative viewpoints.

Explanation

High cohesiveness of the group is regarded as the leading cause of groupthink. When a group is highly cohesive, there is a strong sense of unity and harmony among its members. This can lead to a suppression of dissenting opinions and a tendency to conform to the group's consensus, even if it is flawed or irrational. The desire to maintain group harmony and avoid conflict can override critical thinking and independent decision-making, resulting in poor decision-making and a lack of consideration for alternative viewpoints.

67. Jon Stewart misunderstands Zimbardo's 'bad barrel' theory in the sense that:

He wrongly interprets it as situationist

He wrongly interprets it as dispositionist

He wrongly interprets it as behaviorist

He thinks that Zimbardo administered real shocks to his subjects

Jon Stewart misunderstands Zimbardo's 'bad barrel' theory by wrongly interpreting it as dispositionist. Dispositionist theory suggests that people's behavior is primarily determined by their individual characteristics or personality traits. In contrast, Zimbardo's theory emphasizes the role of situational factors in influencing behavior. Stewart's incorrect interpretation suggests that he believes Zimbardo's theory focuses on individual dispositions rather than external influences.

Explanation

Jon Stewart misunderstands Zimbardo's 'bad barrel' theory by wrongly interpreting it as dispositionist. Dispositionist theory suggests that people's behavior is primarily determined by their individual characteristics or personality traits. In contrast, Zimbardo's theory emphasizes the role of situational factors in influencing behavior. Stewart's incorrect interpretation suggests that he believes Zimbardo's theory focuses on individual dispositions rather than external influences.

68. Which of the following is a leading problem associated with using Milgram's findings as an explanantion of real world obedience outside the laboratory?

Milgram relies too heavily on Freudian, psychoanalytical concepts

Milgram says relatively little about dehumanization, a major factor in many genocidal events

Milgram provides no real explanation for why human beings obey authority

None of the above

Milgram's findings on obedience may not fully explain real-world obedience outside the laboratory because he does not extensively discuss the role of dehumanization, which is a significant factor in many genocidal events. While Milgram's experiments shed light on the power of authority in influencing obedience, they do not address the dehumanizing processes that often occur in real-world situations. This limitation suggests that Milgram's findings may not fully capture the complexity of obedience in real-life contexts where dehumanization plays a crucial role.

Explanation

Milgram's findings on obedience may not fully explain real-world obedience outside the laboratory because he does not extensively discuss the role of dehumanization, which is a significant factor in many genocidal events. While Milgram's experiments shed light on the power of authority in influencing obedience, they do not address the dehumanizing processes that often occur in real-world situations. This limitation suggests that Milgram's findings may not fully capture the complexity of obedience in real-life contexts where dehumanization plays a crucial role.

69. According to Ole Holsti, John foster Dulles subscribed to which of the following?

Operational code analysis

Atheism

The 'inherent bad faith model'

Communism

Ole Holsti suggests that John Foster Dulles subscribed to the 'inherent bad faith model'. This model implies that Dulles believed that the Soviet Union and other communist countries were inherently deceitful and untrustworthy in their international relations. Dulles likely viewed communism as a threat and believed that these countries could not be relied upon to uphold their commitments or negotiate in good faith. This perspective influenced Dulles' approach to foreign policy and his stance towards communist regimes during his time as Secretary of State.

Explanation

Ole Holsti suggests that John Foster Dulles subscribed to the 'inherent bad faith model'. This model implies that Dulles believed that the Soviet Union and other communist countries were inherently deceitful and untrustworthy in their international relations. Dulles likely viewed communism as a threat and believed that these countries could not be relied upon to uphold their commitments or negotiate in good faith. This perspective influenced Dulles' approach to foreign policy and his stance towards communist regimes during his time as Secretary of State.

70. What theory did Milgram's findings in the 1960s do most to discredit?

Schema theory

Satisficing

Situationism

Authoritarian personality theory

Milgram's findings in the 1960s discredited the Authoritarian personality theory. Milgram's famous experiment demonstrated that ordinary individuals were willing to administer potentially lethal electric shocks to others when instructed by an authority figure. This challenged the notion that only individuals with a specific authoritarian personality were prone to obeying immoral orders. Instead, Milgram's research suggested that situational factors, such as the presence of an authority figure, played a significant role in influencing people's behavior. Therefore, his findings undermined the credibility of the Authoritarian personality theory.

Explanation

Milgram's findings in the 1960s discredited the Authoritarian personality theory. Milgram's famous experiment demonstrated that ordinary individuals were willing to administer potentially lethal electric shocks to others when instructed by an authority figure. This challenged the notion that only individuals with a specific authoritarian personality were prone to obeying immoral orders. Instead, Milgram's research suggested that situational factors, such as the presence of an authority figure, played a significant role in influencing people's behavior. Therefore, his findings undermined the credibility of the Authoritarian personality theory.

71. Behaviorists would subscribe to all of the following beliefs, except:

We should study only that which can be measured

Objective science studies only observable behavior

It is possible to alter people's behavior through conditioning

The human mind can be studied scientifically

Behaviorists believe that the human mind cannot be studied scientifically. This is because behaviorists focus solely on observable behavior and believe that only measurable aspects of behavior should be studied. They argue that the mind and its processes are not directly observable and therefore cannot be studied scientifically. Instead, behaviorists focus on studying behavior and how it can be influenced and altered through conditioning techniques.

Explanation

Behaviorists believe that the human mind cannot be studied scientifically. This is because behaviorists focus solely on observable behavior and believe that only measurable aspects of behavior should be studied. They argue that the mind and its processes are not directly observable and therefore cannot be studied scientifically. Instead, behaviorists focus on studying behavior and how it can be influenced and altered through conditioning techniques.

72. With Which of the following statements would a behavorist argue?

It is impossible to decide what should be 'conditioned out' of human beings

The social benefits of conditioning are outweighed by the costs

The notion of 'free will' is an illusion

Conditioning may be the road to fascism

A behaviorist would argue that the notion of 'free will' is an illusion. Behaviorists believe that human behavior is determined by external factors and environmental influences, rather than by personal choice or individual agency. They emphasize the role of conditioning and reinforcement in shaping behavior, suggesting that free will is not a valid explanation for human actions.

Explanation

A behaviorist would argue that the notion of 'free will' is an illusion. Behaviorists believe that human behavior is determined by external factors and environmental influences, rather than by personal choice or individual agency. They emphasize the role of conditioning and reinforcement in shaping behavior, suggesting that free will is not a valid explanation for human actions.

73. Arthur Link and his colleagues famously disputed the findings of which work of psychobiography?

Woodrow Wilson and Colonel House

The Dysfunctional President

Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream

All of the above

Arthur Link and his colleagues disputed the findings of "Woodrow Wilson and Colonel House."

Explanation

Arthur Link and his colleagues disputed the findings of "Woodrow Wilson and Colonel House."

74. "How could I have been so stupid" is a phrase associated wit which American president?

John F. Kennedy after the Cuban missile crisis

Lyndon Johnson after he committed troops to Vietnam

Ronald Reagan after the Challenger disaster

John F. Kennedy after the Bay of Pigs

The phrase "How could I have been so stupid" is associated with John F. Kennedy after the Bay of Pigs. This event refers to the failed attempt by the United States to overthrow the Cuban government in 1961. Kennedy expressed his regret and frustration with himself for underestimating the situation and making poor decisions that led to the failure of the mission.

Explanation

The phrase "How could I have been so stupid" is associated with John F. Kennedy after the Bay of Pigs. This event refers to the failed attempt by the United States to overthrow the Cuban government in 1961. Kennedy expressed his regret and frustration with himself for underestimating the situation and making poor decisions that led to the failure of the mission.

75. According to George and George, Woodrow WIlson's political style was critically shaped by:

An overly fussy mother

A mother who alternately extended then withdrew affection

A father who was an alcoholic

A father who rarely if ever showed his son affection

Woodrow Wilson's political style was critically shaped by a father who rarely showed him affection. This lack of emotional support from his father may have influenced Wilson's approach to leadership and decision-making. It could have led him to seek validation and approval from others, as well as to prioritize rationality and logic over emotional considerations. Wilson may have also developed a strong sense of independence and self-reliance due to the absence of paternal affection, which could have influenced his political style.

Explanation

Woodrow Wilson's political style was critically shaped by a father who rarely showed him affection. This lack of emotional support from his father may have influenced Wilson's approach to leadership and decision-making. It could have led him to seek validation and approval from others, as well as to prioritize rationality and logic over emotional considerations. Wilson may have also developed a strong sense of independence and self-reliance due to the absence of paternal affection, which could have influenced his political style.

76. The character of 'Frazier' in the novel Walden Two was:

A thinly-disguised version of Anthony Burgess himself

An obvious vehicle for Kelsey Grammar

A strong critic of behaviorism

A thinly-disguised version of B.F. Skinner himself

In the novel Walden Two, the character of 'Frazier' is portrayed as a thinly-disguised version of B.F. Skinner himself. This means that the character is based on and closely resembles the real-life behaviorist psychologist B.F. Skinner. The author likely used this character as a way to explore and express Skinner's ideas and theories within the context of the story.

Explanation

In the novel Walden Two, the character of 'Frazier' is portrayed as a thinly-disguised version of B.F. Skinner himself. This means that the character is based on and closely resembles the real-life behaviorist psychologist B.F. Skinner. The author likely used this character as a way to explore and express Skinner's ideas and theories within the context of the story.

77. Which of the following were used early in the class to illustrate the power of situational pressures?

The murder of Kitty Genovese

The Challenger disaster

Obedience among ordinary Germans during the Holocaust

All of the above

All of the options listed were used early in the class to illustrate the power of situational pressures. The murder of Kitty Genovese demonstrated the bystander effect, where individuals are less likely to intervene in an emergency situation when there are others present. The Challenger disaster highlighted the influence of groupthink and the pressure to conform to group decisions, even when it goes against individual judgment. Obedience among ordinary Germans during the Holocaust showcased the impact of authority figures and the willingness of individuals to follow orders, even if it involves immoral actions.

Explanation

All of the options listed were used early in the class to illustrate the power of situational pressures. The murder of Kitty Genovese demonstrated the bystander effect, where individuals are less likely to intervene in an emergency situation when there are others present. The Challenger disaster highlighted the influence of groupthink and the pressure to conform to group decisions, even when it goes against individual judgment. Obedience among ordinary Germans during the Holocaust showcased the impact of authority figures and the willingness of individuals to follow orders, even if it involves immoral actions.

78. An 'illusion of invulnerability' is most associated with which theoretical approach?

Doublespeak

Doublethink

Schema theory

Groupthink

Groupthink is a theoretical approach that is most associated with the 'illusion of invulnerability'. Groupthink refers to the tendency of a group to make faulty decisions because of the desire for consensus and the pressure to maintain harmony within the group. The illusion of invulnerability is a key characteristic of groupthink, where group members believe that their decisions are infallible and that they are invincible, leading to a disregard for potential risks and a lack of critical thinking. This can result in poor decision-making and the failure to consider alternative viewpoints or potential consequences.

Explanation

Groupthink is a theoretical approach that is most associated with the 'illusion of invulnerability'. Groupthink refers to the tendency of a group to make faulty decisions because of the desire for consensus and the pressure to maintain harmony within the group. The illusion of invulnerability is a key characteristic of groupthink, where group members believe that their decisions are infallible and that they are invincible, leading to a disregard for potential risks and a lack of critical thinking. This can result in poor decision-making and the failure to consider alternative viewpoints or potential consequences.

79. The film A clockwork Orange depicts:

Milgram's Obedience experiments

B.F. Skinner's behaviorist experiments

An actual case of operant conditioning

A fictional case of operant conditioning

The film A Clockwork Orange depicts a fictional case of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow it. In the film, the main character, Alex, undergoes a form of conditioning called the Ludovico Technique, which involves pairing violent images with nausea-inducing drugs to suppress his violent tendencies. This fictional case illustrates the concept of operant conditioning by showing how behavior can be manipulated and controlled through the use of conditioning techniques.

Explanation

The film A Clockwork Orange depicts a fictional case of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow it. In the film, the main character, Alex, undergoes a form of conditioning called the Ludovico Technique, which involves pairing violent images with nausea-inducing drugs to suppress his violent tendencies. This fictional case illustrates the concept of operant conditioning by showing how behavior can be manipulated and controlled through the use of conditioning techniques.

80. The possibility that a president other than George W. Bush might not have chosen to invade Iraq was given in the textbook in support of what kind of argument?

Behaviorist

Situaitonist

Dispositionist

None of the above

The possibility that a president other than George W. Bush might not have chosen to invade Iraq supports a dispositionist argument. Dispositionism is a perspective that emphasizes the role of individual characteristics, such as personality traits or beliefs, in shaping behavior. In this case, the argument suggests that the decision to invade Iraq was influenced by Bush's personal disposition or beliefs, implying that another president with different dispositions may have made a different choice.

Explanation

The possibility that a president other than George W. Bush might not have chosen to invade Iraq supports a dispositionist argument. Dispositionism is a perspective that emphasizes the role of individual characteristics, such as personality traits or beliefs, in shaping behavior. In this case, the argument suggests that the decision to invade Iraq was influenced by Bush's personal disposition or beliefs, implying that another president with different dispositions may have made a different choice.

81. The claim that George W. Bush suffers from 'delusions of grandeur' is central to which of the following books discussed in class?

Bush at War

Bush on the couch

The Dysfunctional President

George Bush and the American Dream

The correct answer is "Bush on the couch" because this book specifically focuses on analyzing the psychological aspects of George W. Bush's presidency, including the claim that he suffers from 'delusions of grandeur'. It delves into his personality traits, decision-making processes, and the impact of his psychological state on his leadership style.

Explanation

The correct answer is "Bush on the couch" because this book specifically focuses on analyzing the psychological aspects of George W. Bush's presidency, including the claim that he suffers from 'delusions of grandeur'. It delves into his personality traits, decision-making processes, and the impact of his psychological state on his leadership style.

82. The notion that we're all 'balance seekers' is associated mainly with:

Schema theory

Attribution theory

Groupthink

Cognitive consistency theory

The notion that we're all 'balance seekers' is associated mainly with cognitive consistency theory. This theory suggests that individuals have a natural tendency to seek consistency and balance in their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. When there is inconsistency or imbalance, individuals experience cognitive dissonance and are motivated to reduce it by changing their beliefs or behaviors. This theory emphasizes the importance of maintaining internal consistency and harmony in our thoughts and actions.

Explanation

The notion that we're all 'balance seekers' is associated mainly with cognitive consistency theory. This theory suggests that individuals have a natural tendency to seek consistency and balance in their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. When there is inconsistency or imbalance, individuals experience cognitive dissonance and are motivated to reduce it by changing their beliefs or behaviors. This theory emphasizes the importance of maintaining internal consistency and harmony in our thoughts and actions.

83. According to Doris Kearns Goodwin, Lyndon Johnson's political style was critically shaped by:

An overly fussy father

A mother who never smiled

A mother who alternately extended then withdrew affection

A father who rarely if ever showed his son affection

Doris Kearns Goodwin suggests that Lyndon Johnson's political style was critically shaped by a mother who alternately extended then withdrew affection. This implies that Johnson's upbringing involved inconsistent displays of love and support from his mother. This could have influenced his approach to politics, potentially leading him to seek validation and approval from others, as well as to employ tactics that alternated between charm and manipulation to gain support and maintain control.

Explanation

Doris Kearns Goodwin suggests that Lyndon Johnson's political style was critically shaped by a mother who alternately extended then withdrew affection. This implies that Johnson's upbringing involved inconsistent displays of love and support from his mother. This could have influenced his approach to politics, potentially leading him to seek validation and approval from others, as well as to employ tactics that alternated between charm and manipulation to gain support and maintain control.

84. According to the class textbook, Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange was intended in large part to be:

A defense of behaviorism

A defense of violence

An essay on the benefits of classical conditioning in particular

An attack upon behaviorism

Based on the given information, Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange can be understood as an attack upon behaviorism. The book criticizes behaviorism, which is a psychological theory that suggests human behavior can be controlled and modified through conditioning. Burgess's intention in the novel seems to be to challenge the idea that conditioning can completely eliminate free will and individuality, as depicted through the protagonist's struggle against the oppressive conditioning techniques imposed on him. The book can be seen as a critique of behaviorism's potential dangers and its potential to dehumanize individuals.

Explanation

Based on the given information, Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange can be understood as an attack upon behaviorism. The book criticizes behaviorism, which is a psychological theory that suggests human behavior can be controlled and modified through conditioning. Burgess's intention in the novel seems to be to challenge the idea that conditioning can completely eliminate free will and individuality, as depicted through the protagonist's struggle against the oppressive conditioning techniques imposed on him. The book can be seen as a critique of behaviorism's potential dangers and its potential to dehumanize individuals.

85. William Golding, the author of The Lord of the Flies, was essentially:

Pessimistic about human nature

A situationist

A dispositionist

Both A and C

The correct answer is "Both A and C". This means that William Golding, the author of The Lord of the Flies, was both pessimistic about human nature and a dispositionist. This suggests that Golding believed that humans have a tendency towards evil and that their behavior is influenced by their disposition or inherent qualities.

Explanation

The correct answer is "Both A and C". This means that William Golding, the author of The Lord of the Flies, was both pessimistic about human nature and a dispositionist. This suggests that Golding believed that humans have a tendency towards evil and that their behavior is influenced by their disposition or inherent qualities.

86. Which of the following draws on cognitive consistency theory?

Philip Zimbardo's 'bad barrel' theory

George and George's argument about Woodrow Wilson

The Party Identification School

Groupthink

The Party Identification School draws on cognitive consistency theory. Cognitive consistency theory suggests that individuals strive to maintain consistency between their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. The Party Identification School focuses on how individuals align themselves with a particular political party and maintain consistency in their political beliefs and behaviors. This theory suggests that people are more likely to support a political party that aligns with their pre-existing beliefs and values, in order to maintain cognitive consistency. Therefore, the Party Identification School is the correct answer as it directly relates to cognitive consistency theory.

Explanation

The Party Identification School draws on cognitive consistency theory. Cognitive consistency theory suggests that individuals strive to maintain consistency between their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. The Party Identification School focuses on how individuals align themselves with a particular political party and maintain consistency in their political beliefs and behaviors. This theory suggests that people are more likely to support a political party that aligns with their pre-existing beliefs and values, in order to maintain cognitive consistency. Therefore, the Party Identification School is the correct answer as it directly relates to cognitive consistency theory.

87. Which of the following statements is not compatible with Zimbardo's 'bad barrel' theory?

Most people are capable of committing atrocities like those we observed at Abu Ghraib

We often think of ourselves as incapable of committing evil acts because we are rarely tested in extreme situations

It is often the barrel that turns the apples 'rotten'

Most people are inherently good, while others are inherently evil

Zimbardo's 'bad barrel' theory suggests that it is the situation or environment that can influence and lead individuals to engage in negative or evil behaviors, rather than being inherently good or evil. This theory emphasizes that under certain circumstances, even typically good people can be influenced to commit atrocities. The statement "Most people are inherently good, while others are inherently evil" contradicts Zimbardo's theory as it implies that individuals have inherent qualities of being either good or evil, which goes against the idea that external factors can play a significant role in shaping behavior.

Explanation

Zimbardo's 'bad barrel' theory suggests that it is the situation or environment that can influence and lead individuals to engage in negative or evil behaviors, rather than being inherently good or evil. This theory emphasizes that under certain circumstances, even typically good people can be influenced to commit atrocities. The statement "Most people are inherently good, while others are inherently evil" contradicts Zimbardo's theory as it implies that individuals have inherent qualities of being either good or evil, which goes against the idea that external factors can play a significant role in shaping behavior.

88. Alexander and Juliette George argues in their classic psychobiographic book that:

The assumptions of 'Homo Economicus' are essentially correct

Lyndon Johnson was truly paranoid

Woodrow Wilson's behavior was self-defeating

Woodrow Wilson's behavior stemmed from a series of illnesses he suffered in later life

The correct answer suggests that Woodrow Wilson's behavior was self-defeating. This means that his actions and decisions ultimately worked against his own goals and interests. The explanation for this could be that Wilson's behavior was characterized by a lack of strategic thinking or an inability to effectively navigate political challenges. This may have resulted in his own policies and initiatives facing obstacles or backlash, leading to outcomes that were contrary to his original intentions.

Explanation

The correct answer suggests that Woodrow Wilson's behavior was self-defeating. This means that his actions and decisions ultimately worked against his own goals and interests. The explanation for this could be that Wilson's behavior was characterized by a lack of strategic thinking or an inability to effectively navigate political challenges. This may have resulted in his own policies and initiatives facing obstacles or backlash, leading to outcomes that were contrary to his original intentions.

89. The case of Harry Truman, the Boss Pendergast/Joseph Stalin example was used in the class textbook to illustrate all of the following, except:

The perils of schema use

The fact that Truman initially liked Stalin for dubious reasons

The unfailing accuracy of schema use

The importance of superficial physical resemblance

The case of Harry Truman, the Boss Pendergast/Joseph Stalin example was used in the class textbook to illustrate the perils of schema use, the fact that Truman initially liked Stalin for dubious reasons, and the importance of superficial physical resemblance. However, it did not illustrate the unfailing accuracy of schema use.

Explanation

The case of Harry Truman, the Boss Pendergast/Joseph Stalin example was used in the class textbook to illustrate the perils of schema use, the fact that Truman initially liked Stalin for dubious reasons, and the importance of superficial physical resemblance. However, it did not illustrate the unfailing accuracy of schema use.

90. The Marion Keech story was used in class to illustrate which psychlogical approach?

Schema theory

Attribution theory

Cognitive consistency theory

Groupthink

The Marion Keech story was likely used in class to illustrate the cognitive consistency theory. This theory suggests that individuals strive to maintain consistency in their thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. In the story, Marion Keech's followers continued to believe in her predictions despite evidence to the contrary, which can be seen as an example of cognitive consistency theory. They may have rationalized their beliefs to maintain consistency with their previous beliefs and actions.

Explanation

The Marion Keech story was likely used in class to illustrate the cognitive consistency theory. This theory suggests that individuals strive to maintain consistency in their thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. In the story, Marion Keech's followers continued to believe in her predictions despite evidence to the contrary, which can be seen as an example of cognitive consistency theory. They may have rationalized their beliefs to maintain consistency with their previous beliefs and actions.

91. B.F. Skinner argued all of the following in defense of behaviorism, EXCEPT:

We are all conditioned already, but haphazardly

The social benefits of deliberate conditioning greatly outweigh the costs

The idea that we have real 'choices' is illusory

It is difficult to decide what should be conditioned in or out of human beings

Skinner argued that all individuals are already conditioned, but not haphazardly. He believed that deliberate conditioning can bring about social benefits that outweigh the costs. He also argued that the perception of having real choices is illusory. However, he did not argue that it is difficult to decide what should be conditioned in or out of human beings.

Explanation

Skinner argued that all individuals are already conditioned, but not haphazardly. He believed that deliberate conditioning can bring about social benefits that outweigh the costs. He also argued that the perception of having real choices is illusory. However, he did not argue that it is difficult to decide what should be conditioned in or out of human beings.

92. What was the result of an ABC News 're-run' of the Milgram experiment conducted recently?

Both men and women today were found to be just as obedience as in Milgram's original study

None of the above

In the recent re-run of the Milgram experiment conducted by ABC News, it was found that men were just as obedient as they were in Milgram's original study. However, women were found to be more obedient compared to the original study. This suggests that gender may play a role in obedience levels, with women showing higher levels of obedience in this re-run.

Explanation

In the recent re-run of the Milgram experiment conducted by ABC News, it was found that men were just as obedient as they were in Milgram's original study. However, women were found to be more obedient compared to the original study. This suggests that gender may play a role in obedience levels, with women showing higher levels of obedience in this re-run.

93. Which of the following was true of the decision-making in the run-up to the 1986 challenger disaster?

The decision-makers were realistic about their own capabilities

No one acted as a 'mindguard'

Roger Boisjoly effectively censored himself at one point

None of the above

The correct answer states that Roger Boisjoly effectively censored himself at one point. This suggests that Boisjoly, who was involved in the decision-making process leading up to the 1986 Challenger disaster, withheld or suppressed certain information or concerns that he had. This self-censorship may have had significant implications for the decision-making process and potentially contributed to the disaster.

Explanation

The correct answer states that Roger Boisjoly effectively censored himself at one point. This suggests that Boisjoly, who was involved in the decision-making process leading up to the 1986 Challenger disaster, withheld or suppressed certain information or concerns that he had. This self-censorship may have had significant implications for the decision-making process and potentially contributed to the disaster.

94. According to the scheme developed by Fred Greenstein, an individual who made a decision no other leader would have made but whose decision subsequently had no impact on the political environment is considered:

Actor dispensable alone

Actor indispensable alone

Actor indispensable but action dispensable

Actor dispensable but action indispensable

According to Fred Greenstein's scheme, an individual who made a decision that no other leader would have made but the decision did not have any impact on the political environment is considered as an actor who is indispensable, meaning that their presence is crucial for the functioning of the system. However, the action they took is dispensable, indicating that the specific decision they made did not have a significant or lasting effect on the political landscape.

Explanation

According to Fred Greenstein's scheme, an individual who made a decision that no other leader would have made but the decision did not have any impact on the political environment is considered as an actor who is indispensable, meaning that their presence is crucial for the functioning of the system. However, the action they took is dispensable, indicating that the specific decision they made did not have a significant or lasting effect on the political landscape.

95. According to Zimbardo, the emergence of prison guards like 'John Wayne' is best explained by

Their sadistic impulses

Their dispositions in general

Their abnormalities as human beings

The situation

The emergence of prison guards like 'John Wayne' is best explained by the situation. Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated that individuals can undergo significant behavioral changes when placed in certain situations, such as a prison environment. The power dynamics, deindividuation, and role expectations within the situation can influence individuals to act in ways they normally wouldn't. This suggests that it is the situation, rather than inherent sadistic impulses, general dispositions, or abnormalities, that primarily drives the behavior of prison guards.

Explanation

The emergence of prison guards like 'John Wayne' is best explained by the situation. Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated that individuals can undergo significant behavioral changes when placed in certain situations, such as a prison environment. The power dynamics, deindividuation, and role expectations within the situation can influence individuals to act in ways they normally wouldn't. This suggests that it is the situation, rather than inherent sadistic impulses, general dispositions, or abnormalities, that primarily drives the behavior of prison guards.

96. According to the textbook and classes, why did Phillip Zimbardo make use of M.C. Escher's 'Circle Limit IV' in his book The Lucifer Effect?

It suggests that there is a thin line between good and evil

It suggests that we are all capable of evil

It suggests that we should not categorize human beings as falling into fixed, unchangeable categories

All of the above

Phillip Zimbardo made use of M.C. Escher's 'Circle Limit IV' in his book The Lucifer Effect because it suggests that there is a thin line between good and evil, implying that individuals have the potential to engage in both positive and negative behaviors. Additionally, the artwork suggests that we should not categorize human beings as falling into fixed, unchangeable categories, highlighting the importance of recognizing the complexity and fluidity of human nature. Therefore, all of the above reasons contribute to Zimbardo's decision to include the artwork in his book.

Explanation

Phillip Zimbardo made use of M.C. Escher's 'Circle Limit IV' in his book The Lucifer Effect because it suggests that there is a thin line between good and evil, implying that individuals have the potential to engage in both positive and negative behaviors. Additionally, the artwork suggests that we should not categorize human beings as falling into fixed, unchangeable categories, highlighting the importance of recognizing the complexity and fluidity of human nature. Therefore, all of the above reasons contribute to Zimbardo's decision to include the artwork in his book.

97. The psychiatrist Paul Fick claims that fromer President Bill Clinton suffers from:

Narcissism

Paranoia

An addiction to Big Macs and interns

'Adult Children of Alcoholics' syndrome

The correct answer is 'Adult Children of Alcoholics' syndrome. This syndrome refers to the psychological and behavioral patterns that individuals who grew up in households with alcoholic parents may develop. It is characterized by difficulties in forming healthy relationships, low self-esteem, and a tendency to seek approval and validation from others. This explanation aligns with the given options and the claim made by psychiatrist Paul Fick about former President Bill Clinton.

Explanation

The correct answer is 'Adult Children of Alcoholics' syndrome. This syndrome refers to the psychological and behavioral patterns that individuals who grew up in households with alcoholic parents may develop. It is characterized by difficulties in forming healthy relationships, low self-esteem, and a tendency to seek approval and validation from others. This explanation aligns with the given options and the claim made by psychiatrist Paul Fick about former President Bill Clinton.

98. The typical attributes of a dog are used in the class textbook --otherwise known as 'the book of wisdom'! --to illustrate which of the following?

Cognitive Consistency Theory

Authoritarian personality theory

Attribution theory

Schema theory

The question asks which theory is illustrated by using the typical attributes of a dog in the class textbook. Schema theory is the correct answer because it explains how individuals organize and interpret information about the world based on pre-existing mental frameworks or schemas. By using the typical attributes of a dog, the textbook is likely using a schema to help students understand and categorize information about dogs.

Explanation

The question asks which theory is illustrated by using the typical attributes of a dog in the class textbook. Schema theory is the correct answer because it explains how individuals organize and interpret information about the world based on pre-existing mental frameworks or schemas. By using the typical attributes of a dog, the textbook is likely using a schema to help students understand and categorize information about dogs.

99. The so-called 'bad barrel' theory is a good example of:

Analogical reasoning

Cognitivism

Situationism

Dispositionism

The correct answer is dispositionism because the 'bad barrel' theory suggests that individuals' behavior is primarily influenced by their personal dispositions or characteristics rather than external factors or situations. This theory assumes that people's actions are a reflection of their internal traits and attributes, rather than being shaped by the circumstances they find themselves in.

Explanation

The correct answer is dispositionism because the 'bad barrel' theory suggests that individuals' behavior is primarily influenced by their personal dispositions or characteristics rather than external factors or situations. This theory assumes that people's actions are a reflection of their internal traits and attributes, rather than being shaped by the circumstances they find themselves in.

100. The main argument of Robert Dallek's Flawed Giant as outlined in the class textbook is that:

Lyndon Johnson's father played a critical role in shaping his son's political style

Lyndon Johnson's mother played a critical in shaping her son's political style

LBJ thought most conspiracy theories were nonsense

LBJ came frighteningly close to clinical paranoia at times

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Explanation

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