Physiology Final Practice Test

Type one diabetes is characterized by the body's inability to produce insulin naturally. This means that individuals with type one diabetes require insulin to manage their blood sugar levels. Unlike type two diabetes, which can often be managed with lifestyle changes and oral medications, type one diabetes typically requires daily insulin injections or the use of an insulin pump.

Fatty acid oxidation refers to the process of breaking down fatty acids to produce ATP. This process occurs in the mitochondria and involves a series of enzymatic reactions that result in the release of energy stored in the fatty acids. The breakdown of glucose and amino acids can also produce ATP, but in this case, the correct answer specifically highlights the ATP production from the breakdown of fatty acids. Cortisol, on the other hand, is a hormone and not a substrate for ATP production.

Insulin is the correct answer because it is a hormone that is responsible for decreasing blood glucose levels. It does this by promoting the uptake and storage of glucose in the liver, muscle, and fat tissues. Insulin also inhibits the production and release of glucose from the liver. Therefore, insulin plays a major role in regulating blood glucose levels and lowering them when they are too high.

Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood sugar levels. It is produced in the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. These cells are responsible for the production and secretion of insulin into the bloodstream. Insulin plays a crucial role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, and helps to lower blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into cells. Therefore, the correct answer is "In the beta cells of islets of Langerhans in pancreas."

The posterior hypothalamic area responds to excess body cold. This area of the hypothalamus is responsible for regulating body temperature and plays a role in thermoregulation. When the body is exposed to cold temperatures, the posterior hypothalamic area activates mechanisms to generate heat and maintain a stable body temperature.

Glucagon is the hormone secreted by the pancreas islets that favors the release of glucose. When blood sugar levels are low, glucagon is released to stimulate the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose, which is then released into the bloodstream. This helps to increase blood sugar levels and provide energy to the body. Insulin, on the other hand, lowers blood sugar levels by promoting the uptake and storage of glucose in cells. Epinephrine and acetylcholine are not directly involved in the release of glucose from the pancreas.

Glucagon is a hormone that is released when blood glucose levels are low. It acts to increase blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose and release it into the bloodstream. Therefore, the stimulus for glucagon release is low blood glucose.

Aldosterone, cortisol, and DHEA are steroid hormones that are secreted by the adrenal gland/cortex. The adrenal gland is responsible for producing and releasing these hormones into the bloodstream. Aldosterone helps regulate blood pressure and electrolyte balance, cortisol is involved in stress response and metabolism, and DHEA plays a role in the production of other hormones, including testosterone and estrogen. The anterior pituitary gland, posterior pituitary gland, and thyroid do not secrete these hormones.

The liver is the only organ that can release its glucose into the blood, making it available to the rest of the body. This is because the liver plays a crucial role in regulating blood sugar levels. It stores excess glucose as glycogen and can break down glycogen to release glucose when the body needs it. This process, known as glycogenolysis, helps maintain a stable blood sugar level and provides a constant source of energy for the body's cells.

Glucagon is the correct answer because its major effect is to increase blood glucose levels. Glucagon acts on the liver to stimulate the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which is then released into the bloodstream. This hormone is released when blood glucose levels are low, such as during fasting or exercise, and helps to maintain glucose homeostasis in the body.

Addison's disease is a condition characterized by the insufficient production of cortisol, a hormone produced by the adrenal glands. Cortisol plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, including metabolism, immune response, and stress response. When cortisol is absent, it can lead to symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss, low blood pressure, and darkening of the skin. Therefore, the absence of cortisol is the cause of Addison's disease.

The anterior hypothalamic area is responsible for responding to excess body heat. It helps regulate body temperature by activating mechanisms such as sweating and dilation of blood vessels in the skin, which helps dissipate heat and cool down the body. The posterior hypothalamic area, on the other hand, is involved in responding to cold temperatures and helps initiate mechanisms such as shivering and constriction of blood vessels to conserve heat. Therefore, the correct answer is the anterior hypothalamic area.

Glucagon is a hormone that is produced in the alpha cells of the islet of the pancreas. It is released when blood sugar levels are low and helps to increase blood sugar levels by stimulating the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose. The beta cells in the islet of the pancreas, on the other hand, produce insulin, which helps to lower blood sugar levels. Therefore, the correct answer is "In the alpha cells in the islet of the pancreas."

Insulin is the hormone secreted by the pancreas islets that favors the storage of potential energy supplies. Insulin helps regulate blood sugar levels by allowing cells to take in glucose from the bloodstream and convert it into glycogen for storage. It also promotes the uptake of fatty acids and amino acids, which are used for energy production and protein synthesis. Insulin plays a crucial role in maintaining energy balance and storing excess energy for later use.

Gluconeogenesis is the process of synthesizing new glucose molecules from non-carbohydrate sources, such as amino acids and glycerol, during periods of fasting or starvation. This allows the body to maintain blood glucose levels and provide energy to vital organs, such as the brain, when glucose stores are depleted. It is an important metabolic pathway that helps to ensure the body's survival during times of limited food availability.

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by non-insulin requiring or "NIDDM" (non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus). This means that individuals with type 2 diabetes do not require insulin injections to manage their blood sugar levels. Instead, they can often manage their condition through lifestyle changes such as diet and exercise, along with oral medications if necessary. Type 1 diabetes, on the other hand, is characterized by insulin dependency, as individuals with this type of diabetes do not produce enough insulin and require insulin injections for survival.

Both the liver and muscle cells store excess glucose as glycogen when stimulated by insulin. Insulin promotes the uptake of glucose into these cells and triggers the conversion of glucose into glycogen for storage. The liver acts as a major glycogen reservoir, releasing glucose into the bloodstream when needed, while muscle cells primarily store glycogen for their own energy needs during exercise. Therefore, both the liver and muscle play a crucial role in maintaining glucose homeostasis in the body.

TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone) is the hormone from the hypothalamus that causes TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) to be secreted. TRH stimulates the release of TSH from the anterior pituitary gland, which then acts on the thyroid gland to stimulate the production and release of thyroid hormones T3 and T4.

Glycolysis is the process by which glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen to produce ATP. This process occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and is the first step in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. In anaerobic conditions, glycolysis is followed by fermentation, while in aerobic conditions, glycolysis is followed by the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation to produce more ATP. Therefore, the correct answer is "The anaerobic production of ATP (uses glucose)."

Pyrogen is the correct answer because it refers to any substance that can cause a fever. It can be a chemical or a biological agent that stimulates the body to produce a fever as part of the immune response. The other options, pyromaniac, pyrocogen, and bacteria, do not have any direct association with causing a fever.

GNRH, also known as gonadotropin-releasing hormone, is secreted by the hypothalamus and stimulates the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland. LH is responsible for the regulation of the reproductive system, including the maturation of eggs in females and the production of testosterone in males. Therefore, GNRH plays a crucial role in the control of reproductive functions by initiating the release of LH.

Hyperglycemia is a condition characterized by high blood glucose levels. A blood glucose level above 126 mg/dL is considered to be indicative of hyperglycemia. This can be caused by various factors such as diabetes, stress, certain medications, or hormonal imbalances. Hyperglycemia can lead to symptoms such as increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, and blurred vision. It is important to manage and treat hyperglycemia to prevent complications and maintain overall health.

GNRH, or Gonadotropin-releasing hormone, is secreted by the hypothalamus and stimulates the secretion of Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). FSH is a hormone that plays a crucial role in the reproductive system, particularly in the development of ovarian follicles in females and the production of sperm in males. GNRH acts on the pituitary gland, causing it to release FSH into the bloodstream. This hormone cascade is essential for the regulation of the menstrual cycle and fertility in females, as well as the production of testosterone and sperm in males.

Graves Disease is the correct answer because it is a condition characterized by an excess of T3 hormone, which leads to hyperthyroidism. It is an autoimmune disorder that affects the thyroid gland, causing it to produce too much thyroid hormone. Symptoms of Graves Disease include weight loss, rapid heartbeat, anxiety, and bulging eyes. Cushing's disease is a condition caused by excess cortisol production, Addison's syndrome is a condition caused by adrenal gland insufficiency, and diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood sugar levels.

Cortisol, also known as the "hormone of starvation," is produced by the adrenal cortex and plays a crucial role in stimulating gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis is the process by which the body converts non-carbohydrate sources, such as amino acids and fatty acids, into glucose to be used as an energy source during periods of fasting or starvation. Cortisol promotes this process by increasing the breakdown of proteins and fats and stimulating the liver to produce glucose. Therefore, cortisol helps to maintain blood glucose levels and provide energy during times of low food intake.

Hypoglycemia is characterized by blood glucose levels below 60 mg. This condition occurs when the body has low levels of glucose, which is the primary source of energy for the brain and other organs. Symptoms of hypoglycemia include dizziness, confusion, sweating, and weakness. If left untreated, it can lead to more severe complications such as seizures and loss of consciousness. Monitoring blood glucose levels and consuming appropriate amounts of carbohydrates are essential in managing and preventing hypoglycemia.

"Moon face" is a symptom of Cushing's syndrome. This condition is caused by prolonged exposure to high levels of cortisol, a hormone produced by the adrenal glands. Excess cortisol can lead to a redistribution of fat in the body, causing the face to become round and full, resembling the shape of the moon. Other symptoms of Cushing's syndrome include weight gain, thinning skin, muscle weakness, and high blood pressure.

The TCA cycle and fatty acid oxidation both occur in the mitochondria and require oxygen, mitochondrial enzymes, and cytochromes to regenerate ATP. Oxygen is necessary for the final step of the electron transport chain, where cytochromes transfer electrons and generate a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This proton gradient is then used by ATP synthase to produce ATP. The mitochondrial enzymes play a crucial role in the TCA cycle and fatty acid oxidation by catalyzing the various reactions involved in the breakdown of glucose and fatty acids to produce energy in the form of ATP.

The TCA cycle, also known as the Krebs Cycle or Oxidative Phosphorylation, is a series of chemical reactions that occur in the mitochondria of cells. It is responsible for the production of ATP, the energy currency of cells, through the aerobic breakdown of carbohydrates like glucose. During the TCA cycle, glucose is broken down and its energy is captured in the form of ATP. This process occurs in the presence of oxygen, making it aerobic.

Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is a hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla. It plays a crucial role in the fight-or-flight response by increasing heart rate, dilating blood vessels, and increasing blood glucose levels. In muscle, epinephrine stimulates the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which can then be used as a source of energy. Therefore, epinephrine favors the release of glucose from the liver, providing fuel for muscles during times of stress or physical activity.

Symptoms of Graves' disease, an autoimmune disorder that affects the thyroid gland, typically include goiter (enlarged thyroid gland), high levels of T3 hormone, low levels of TSH hormone, and high body temperature. However, low T3 and high TSH levels are not associated with Graves' disease. These levels are typically seen in hypothyroidism, a condition where the thyroid gland does not produce enough hormones.

The hypothalamic nuclei are responsible for regulating various physiological processes in the body. This includes temperature control, appetite, thirst, sleep, and sexual behavior. These centers in the hypothalamus help maintain homeostasis by regulating body temperature, controlling hunger and satiety, managing fluid balance, regulating sleep-wake cycles, and influencing reproductive behaviors.

CRH, also known as corticotropin-releasing hormone, is released by the hypothalamus and stimulates the release of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) from the pituitary gland. ACTH then acts on the adrenal glands to stimulate the release of cortisol, a stress hormone. Therefore, CRH is the hormone responsible for causing ACTH to be secreted.

Glucagon is the correct answer because it is a hormone that is characterized by 31 amino acids in one polypeptide chain. Insulin, epinephrine, and cortisol are not characterized by 31 amino acids in one polypeptide chain.

The term "mellitus" is derived from the Latin word "mel" which means "honey". Therefore, the statement "Mellitus means 'sugar'" is incorrect. The correct meaning of "mellitus" is "honey".

FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) stimulates granulosa cells in the ovaries to produce aromatase. Aromatase is an enzyme that converts androgens into estrogen. This process is important for the development and maturation of ovarian follicles and the production of estrogen in the female body. The other options (theca, thyroid, and uterine) are not directly stimulated by FSH to produce aromatase.

The liver cells are capable of secreting glucose into the blood when stimulated by cortisol, glucagon, and epinephrine. The liver plays a crucial role in maintaining blood glucose levels by releasing stored glucose into the bloodstream. Cortisol, glucagon, and epinephrine are hormones that can stimulate the liver cells to break down glycogen and release glucose. Therefore, only the liver cells have the ability to secrete glucose into the blood in response to these hormones.

Cushing's syndrome is a condition caused by excessive levels of cortisol in the body. Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands that helps regulate various bodily functions. When there is an overproduction of cortisol, it can lead to a range of symptoms including weight gain, high blood pressure, and changes in the appearance of the face and skin. Therefore, the correct answer is excess cortisol.

The statement "Diabetes means 'flowing through'" is true. The word "diabetes" originates from the Greek word "diabētēs," which means "to pass through" or "to flow through." This term was used to describe the excessive urination and thirst experienced by individuals with diabetes, as it was believed that their urine flowed through them excessively. Therefore, the statement is accurate in describing the meaning of the word "diabetes."

GNRH, or Gonadotropin-releasing hormone, is a hormone secreted by the hypothalamus that stimulates the secretion of GH, or Growth Hormone. GH is responsible for stimulating growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration in humans. GNRH acts on the pituitary gland, specifically the anterior pituitary, to trigger the release of GH into the bloodstream. This hormone cascade is essential for normal growth and development in individuals.

The treatment mentioned, which includes the removal of the thyroid, hormone replacement, and PTU, is commonly used for Graves' disease. Graves' disease is an autoimmune disorder that affects the thyroid gland, causing it to produce excessive amounts of thyroid hormone. This treatment aims to regulate the production of thyroid hormone and manage the symptoms associated with the disease.

PRH (prolactin-releasing hormone) and PIH/Dopamine (prolactin-inhibiting hormone) are the two hormones secreted by the hypothalamus that regulate the secretion of prolactin. PRH stimulates the release of prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland, while PIH/Dopamine inhibits the secretion of prolactin. These two hormones work in a delicate balance to regulate the levels of prolactin in the body.

High ACTH levels can cause skin pigmentation. ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) is produced by the pituitary gland and stimulates the production of cortisol by the adrenal glands. When ACTH levels are high, it can lead to an overproduction of melanin, the pigment responsible for skin color. This can result in darkening or increased pigmentation of the skin.

MSH (melanocyte-stimulating hormone) is secreted by the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and oxytocin. MSH plays a role in regulating the production and release of these hormones, which are involved in various physiological processes such as water balance, blood pressure regulation, and uterine contractions during childbirth. Estrogen, progesterone, and TSH do not directly stimulate the release of ADH and oxytocin.

Hypothyroidism, also known as a deficiency of T3, can lead to the development of myxedema or cretinism. Myxedema refers to the swelling and thickening of the skin due to the accumulation of a substance called mucin. Cretinism, on the other hand, is a condition that occurs when hypothyroidism is present at birth or during early childhood, leading to stunted growth, intellectual disability, and other developmental issues. Therefore, both myxedema and cretinism are associated with a deficiency of T3 or hypothyroidism.

Insulin is characterized by 51 amino acids, with two chains (A-21 aa, B-30 aa) held together by three disulfide bridges formed between cysteine amino acids. Epinephrine, cortisol, and glucagon do not have the same amino acid composition or disulfide bridge structure as insulin.

LH (luteinizing hormone) stimulates the theca cells. The theca cells are found in the ovarian follicles and are responsible for producing androgens, which are then converted into estrogen by the granulosa cells. LH plays a crucial role in the process of ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum. It stimulates the theca cells to produce androgens, which are necessary for the production of estrogen and the overall hormonal balance in the female reproductive system.