Medical Ethics Practice Questions And Answers

Randomized control studies are considered the gold standard for common study designs because they involve randomly assigning participants into different groups, with one group receiving the intervention or treatment being studied and the other group serving as a control. This randomization helps to minimize bias and ensures that any observed differences between the groups can be attributed to the intervention. Randomized control studies are known for their ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships and are widely used in medical and scientific research to evaluate the efficacy of interventions or treatments.

Step 2 of the key steps for the practice of EBM is searching the literature to identify the best available evidence to answer the question. This involves conducting a systematic search of relevant literature sources such as databases, journals, and clinical guidelines to find studies or research that provide evidence to support or inform the clinical question at hand. This step is crucial in ensuring that the evidence used in the practice of EBM is current, reliable, and applicable to the specific clinical scenario.

A sample is a sub-group of the population that is selected to represent the entire population in a study. It is a smaller portion of the population that is chosen in order to gather data and make inferences about the entire population. By studying a sample, researchers can save time and resources compared to studying the entire population. Additionally, a well-designed sample should be representative of the population, meaning that it accurately reflects the characteristics and diversity of the population being studied.

Converting clinical scenarios into a structured answerable question is the first step in the key steps for the practice of EBM. This involves formulating a clear and focused question that can be answered through evidence-based research. By defining the question, it becomes easier to identify and search for the relevant literature and evidence to address the clinical scenario. This step sets the foundation for the entire EBM process, as it helps guide the subsequent steps of critically appraising the evidence, applying the results to clinical practice, and evaluating the EBM process.

Declarative statements that can be refuted are hypotheses. Hypotheses are statements that propose a possible explanation or prediction based on limited evidence or observations. They are testable and can be proven false through empirical research or experimentation. Unlike research questions or theories, hypotheses are specific and can be either supported or refuted by evidence. Prophylaxis, on the other hand, refers to preventive measures or treatments to prevent disease, and is not a type of declarative statement.

The null hypothesis is a declarative statement in which an intervention does not make a difference. In other words, it assumes that there is no effect or relationship between the variables being studied. The null hypothesis is typically tested against an alternative hypothesis, which suggests that there is a difference or relationship. By testing the null hypothesis, researchers can determine whether there is enough evidence to reject it and support the alternative hypothesis.

Dependent variables are those that are influenced or affected by changes in the independent variable. In an experiment, the independent variable is manipulated or varied by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the outcome or response that is measured or observed. Therefore, the correct answer is "dependent, independent."

External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to the real world population. It assesses whether the findings of a study can be applied to a broader population beyond the specific sample that was studied. In other words, it determines if the results are applicable and can be used in real-life situations with real people.

Cohort studies are typically prospective, meaning that they follow a group of individuals over a period of time to observe the development of certain outcomes. This allows researchers to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between exposure and outcome. Retrospective studies, on the other hand, look back in time to analyze data and are not as reliable as prospective studies. Snapshot studies, also known as cross-sectional studies, collect data at a single point in time and do not provide information on the progression of outcomes. While cohort studies are considered valuable, they are not necessarily considered the gold standard in all cases.

Step 3 of the key steps for the practice of EBM is critically appraising the evidence for its validity and applicability. This involves carefully evaluating the quality and relevance of the evidence obtained in step 2. It includes assessing the study design, methodology, and statistical analysis to determine the reliability and validity of the evidence. Additionally, it involves considering the applicability of the evidence to the specific clinical scenario and patient population. By critically appraising the evidence, healthcare professionals can make informed decisions about its usefulness and relevance to their practice.

Greater validity means less external validity, and the reverse.

A cross-sectional study is considered a "snap-shot" study because it collects data from a population at a single point in time. It aims to gather information about the prevalence of a certain condition or characteristic in a population at a specific moment. This type of study does not follow individuals over time but rather captures a snapshot of the population at a given time, providing a snapshot of the relationship between variables at that specific moment.

In a cohort study, the endpoint refers to the outcome or event being measured or observed. Since the endpoint occurs after the study begins, it implies that the researchers are monitoring the participants over a period of time to determine if and when the endpoint occurs. Therefore, the statement "True" accurately reflects this characteristic of a cohort study.

Case series and case reports do not have statistical validity because they do not use control groups against which to compare outcomes. Control groups are essential in research to establish causality and determine the true effect of an intervention or exposure. Without control groups, it is difficult to attribute outcomes solely to the intervention or exposure being studied, as other factors may be influencing the results. Therefore, case series and case reports provide valuable information about rare or unique cases but do not provide strong evidence for causality or generalizability.

Step 4 of the key steps for the practice of EBM is applying the results of the appraisal to clinical practice. This step involves taking the evidence that has been critically appraised and determining how it can be applied to the specific clinical scenario. It requires considering factors such as the patient's individual characteristics, preferences, and values, as well as the feasibility and potential harms or benefits of implementing the evidence-based practice. This step is crucial in ensuring that the best available evidence is translated into effective and appropriate clinical care.

Internal validity is the basis for stating that a change in the dependent variable is ONLY the result of the manipulation in the independent variable. It refers to the degree to which a study accurately demonstrates a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables, without the influence of confounding variables. In other words, internal validity ensures that any observed changes in the dependent variable can be attributed solely to the manipulation of the independent variable, rather than other factors.

The given answer states that a research study question should begin with "What if?" and end with "So what?". This implies that a research study should explore potential hypothetical scenarios and their implications or consequences. By asking "What if?", researchers can consider different possibilities and variables, while asking "So what?" helps to determine the significance and relevance of the research findings. These questions help researchers to delve deeper into the subject matter and understand the potential impact or importance of their study.

Case series/studies/reports are generally reports that provide detailed information about a specific patient or a small group of patients. These reports aim to describe the clinical characteristics, treatment, and outcomes of the individual or group being studied. They are not focused on an entire population, hospital facility, doctor's office, or sample, but rather provide in-depth analysis of a single patient or a small group of patients.

A cohort study is a type of study method that involves following a group of subjects who have already been exposed to a certain factor or condition and observing them over a period of time to compare the outcomes between the exposed and non-exposed individuals. This study design allows researchers to examine the effects of a particular exposure or risk factor on the development of certain outcomes or diseases. Therefore, a cohort study is the appropriate study method for observing the differences in outcome between the exposed and non-exposed individuals over time.

A case-control study collects data from patients who already have a certain condition and compares them to a control group without the condition. The design of the study is retrospective because it looks back in time to determine the exposure or risk factors that may have contributed to the development of the condition. This type of study is useful for investigating rare diseases or conditions where it may be difficult or unethical to conduct a prospective study.

False. In a case-control study, the endpoint refers to the outcome or event being studied, such as the development of a disease or condition. The endpoint can occur before, during, or after the study begins, depending on the specific research design and objectives. Therefore, the statement that the endpoint occurs after the study begins is incorrect.

Step 5 of the key steps for the practice of EBM is the evaluation/assessment of the EBM process. This step involves reflecting on the entire process of practicing EBM and assessing its effectiveness. It includes evaluating the outcomes of the EBM process, identifying any areas for improvement, and assessing the impact of EBM on clinical practice. This step is crucial in ensuring that EBM is being implemented effectively and that it is resulting in improved patient outcomes.

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the study methods that use one or more active test treatments and at least one concurrent control. In RCTs, subjects are divided into two groups - a treatment group and a control group. Both groups are followed through time, and the outcomes are compared to assess the effectiveness of the treatment. RCTs are considered the gold standard in research because they provide a high level of control and minimize bias, allowing for reliable conclusions about cause and effect relationships.

Choosing a random selection of subjects ensures that the results of the study can be maximally generalized. Random selection helps to minimize bias and increase the representativeness of the sample, allowing for the findings to be applied to a larger population. By selecting subjects randomly, the study's results are more likely to be applicable to real-life situations and can be generalized to a broader context.

Anaphylaxis is not a required current knowledge of medical practice. Anaphylaxis refers to a severe allergic reaction that can be life-threatening. While it is important for medical professionals to be aware of anaphylaxis and its treatment, it is not considered a fundamental or core knowledge requirement for medical practice. Understanding prognosis with and without treatment, disease processes and identification, controlling and altering the disease course, and prophylaxis are all essential components of medical practice.

False, subjects are typically comprised based on convenience, so college students, nursing home patients may be used but will appear as a "random" choosing.