Exam 2 Second Half

Each hemoglobin molecule can transport up to 4 oxygen molecules. Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that binds to oxygen in the lungs and carries it to the body's tissues. It has four binding sites where oxygen molecules can attach, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to transport four oxygen molecules at a time. This efficient oxygen transport system is crucial for delivering oxygen to cells throughout the body and supporting various physiological processes.

The blood transports more CO2 in the form of bicarbonate ions than in any other form. When CO2 enters the bloodstream, it combines with water to form carbonic acid. This carbonic acid then dissociates into bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions. The majority of CO2 is transported in the form of bicarbonate ions, which are more soluble and can easily move across cell membranes. This allows for efficient transport of CO2 from the tissues to the lungs for elimination.

Nitrogen has the highest concentration in the air we breathe. It makes up approximately 78% of the Earth's atmosphere. Oxygen, on the other hand, constitutes about 21% of the air. Carbon dioxide, although present in trace amounts, is significantly lower in concentration compared to nitrogen and oxygen.

Hypoxia is the term used to describe a deficiency of oxygen or the inability to utilize oxygen in a tissue. This condition can occur due to various reasons such as reduced oxygen supply, impaired oxygen-carrying capacity of blood, or impaired oxygen utilization by cells. It can lead to tissue damage and can be a symptom of various medical conditions. Anexia and cyanosis are not the correct terms for this condition.

Carbonic anhydrase is the correct answer because it is an enzyme found in red blood cells that catalyzes the breakdown of H2CO3 (carbonic acid) into water and carbon dioxide. This enzyme helps maintain the acid-base balance in the blood by regulating the levels of carbon dioxide and bicarbonate ions. Hemoglobin is a protein responsible for carrying oxygen in red blood cells, while carbozyhemoglobin is a compound formed by the binding of carbon dioxide to hemoglobin.

Carbonic anhydrase is the correct answer because it is the enzyme responsible for breaking down H2CO3, which is carbonic acid, into water and carbon dioxide. This enzyme is found in red blood cells and plays a crucial role in maintaining the acid-base balance in the body. It catalyzes the reversible reaction between carbon dioxide and water, facilitating the formation of carbonic acid, which then quickly dissociates into water and carbon dioxide. This process is important for the transport of carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs for elimination.

During its passage through a bed of systemic blood capillaries, the blood gives up about 20-25% of its oxygen. This means that a significant amount of oxygen is released from the blood in the capillaries, allowing it to be delivered to the body's tissues and organs. The remaining oxygen is then carried back to the heart and lungs for reoxygenation.

The blood transports more CO2 in the form of bicarbonate ions than in any other form. This is because when CO2 enters the blood, it combines with water to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid then dissociates into bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions. The majority of CO2 is converted into bicarbonate ions, which are highly soluble and can easily be transported in the blood. This conversion allows for efficient transportation of CO2 from tissues to the lungs, where it can be exhaled.

Bronchiole diameter will have the greatest influence on resistance to pulmonary airflow in a healthy person. The bronchioles are small airways in the lungs that regulate the flow of air. When the bronchiole diameter is constricted, it increases resistance to airflow, making it more difficult for air to pass through. Conversely, when the bronchiole diameter is dilated, it decreases resistance to airflow, allowing air to flow more easily. Therefore, changes in bronchiole diameter can significantly impact the resistance to pulmonary airflow.

Dalton's law states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures exerted by each individual gas in the mixture. This means that the pressure of a gas mixture is determined by the combined contributions of each gas present, regardless of their interactions with each other.

During its passage through a bed of systemic blood capillaries, the blood gives up approximately 20% to 25% of its oxygen. This means that a significant portion of oxygen is released from the blood and taken up by the surrounding tissues for their metabolic needs. This process is essential for providing oxygen to the cells and maintaining their normal functioning.

Emphysema is a lung disease characterized by the destruction of the walls of the alveoli, resulting in abnormally large air spaces. This leads to a decrease in the surface area available for oxygen exchange, causing shortness of breath and difficulty in breathing. The destruction of the alveoli also leads to reduced elasticity of the lungs, making it harder for them to expand and contract. Therefore, emphysema fits the description of a lung disease with abnormally few but large alveoli.

Kussmaul respiration is the correct answer because it refers to the deep, rapid breathing pattern commonly observed in individuals with terminal diabetes mellitus. This type of breathing helps the body eliminate excess acids, such as ketones, which accumulate in the blood due to uncontrolled diabetes. Kussmaul respiration is a compensatory mechanism that aims to restore the body's acid-base balance.

An increase in membrane thickness would slow down gas exchange between the blood and alveolar air because it would create a greater distance for the gases to diffuse across. The thicker the membrane, the longer it would take for oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass through, resulting in a slower rate of gas exchange. This would impair the efficiency of oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal in the lungs, leading to respiratory difficulties.

Systemic arterial blood typically has a partial pressure of oxygen (Po2) of 95 mmHg, a partial pressure of carbon dioxide (Pc02) of 40 mmHg, and a pH of 7.5.

When CO2 is added to the blood, it combines with water to form carbonic acid. This reaction releases hydrogen ions (H+), which lowers the pH of the blood. The decrease in pH stimulates red blood cells (RBCs) to release more oxygen to the tissues. Therefore, the addition of CO2 generates hydrogen ions in the RBCs, which in turn stimulates RBCs to unload more oxygen.

Kussmaul respiration is the correct answer for the given question. Kussmaul respiration refers to deep, rapid breathing that is often observed in individuals with terminal diabetes mellitus. This type of breathing pattern is characterized by increased depth and rate of breathing, and it is the body's attempt to compensate for the metabolic acidosis that occurs in diabetes mellitus. It helps to remove excess carbon dioxide and increase the amount of oxygen in the body.

Emphysema is a lung disease characterized by the destruction of the alveoli, which are the tiny air sacs in the lungs responsible for oxygen exchange. This destruction leads to the formation of abnormally large and fewer alveoli. As a result, the surface area available for gas exchange decreases, causing difficulties in breathing and reduced oxygen supply to the body. Bronchitis, on the other hand, is the inflammation of the bronchial tubes, and atelectasis refers to the collapse or closure of a lung or a part of it.

When CO2 is added to the blood, it reacts with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). This carbonic acid then dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-). The increase in hydrogen ions stimulates red blood cells (RBCs) to unload more oxygen. This is known as the Bohr effect, where a decrease in pH (increase in acidity) causes hemoglobin to have a lower affinity for oxygen, allowing it to be released more readily to the tissues. Therefore, the correct answer is hydrogen.

Scuba divers breathe a nitrogen-oxygen mixture rather than pure compressed oxygen in order to avoid oxygen toxicity. Breathing pure oxygen at high pressures can lead to oxygen toxicity, which can cause seizures, lung damage, and other serious health issues. By using a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, the risk of oxygen toxicity is minimized, allowing divers to safely explore underwater environments without experiencing harmful effects from excessive oxygen exposure.

A good Samaritan has up to 4 or 5 minutes to begin CPR and save Tom's life because there is a venous reserve of oxygen in Tom's blood. This means that even though Tom is in respiratory arrest, there is still oxygen stored in his veins that can be circulated to vital organs for a short period of time. This oxygen reserve allows the good Samaritan some time to initiate CPR and provide artificial circulation to keep oxygen flowing to Tom's brain and other essential organs until professional medical help arrives.

Sickle-cell disease can lead to anemic hypoxia because it is a genetic disorder that affects the shape of red blood cells. In this disease, red blood cells become sickle-shaped and can get stuck in small blood vessels, leading to reduced oxygen delivery to tissues and organs. This results in anemia, a condition characterized by low levels of red blood cells and hemoglobin, leading to inadequate oxygen supply to the body's tissues, causing hypoxia. Asthma and atelectasis can cause hypoxia, but not specifically anemic hypoxia.

The pH of the cerebrospinal fluid is monitored by the central chemoreceptor. This structure is responsible for detecting changes in the levels of carbon dioxide and pH in the cerebrospinal fluid. When there is an increase in carbon dioxide levels, it leads to a decrease in pH, which is detected by the central chemoreceptor. This information is then relayed to the respiratory centers in the brain, which helps regulate breathing rate and maintain the pH balance in the body.

Erythrocyte count refers to the number of red blood cells in the blood. However, the concentration of red blood cells does not directly affect the dissociation of oxyhemoglobin. Oxyhemoglobin dissociation is primarily influenced by factors such as temperature, pH, and the presence of certain molecules like carbon dioxide. Therefore, erythrocyte count does not have a direct effect on the dissociation of oxyhemoglobin.

Surfactant is a substance secreted by the cells in the alveoli of the lungs. Its main function is to reduce the surface tension within the alveoli, preventing them from collapsing. When the alveoli collapse, it becomes difficult for oxygen to enter the bloodstream and for carbon dioxide to be released. Therefore, surfactant plays a crucial role in maintaining the structure and function of the alveoli, ensuring efficient gas exchange in the lungs.

Carbon monoxide kills by blocking the binding of oxygen to hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is responsible for carrying oxygen throughout the body, but when carbon monoxide is present, it binds to hemoglobin more readily than oxygen. This leads to a decrease in the amount of oxygen that can be transported to vital organs and tissues, causing oxygen deprivation and potentially death.

The phrenic nerves are responsible for controlling the diaphragm, which is the main muscle involved in breathing. These nerves originate from the cervical spine and innervate the diaphragm, allowing it to contract and relax during the breathing process. The sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves are not specifically involved in controlling the diaphragm, but rather regulate other functions in the body such as heart rate and digestion.

During times of high carbon dioxide partial pressure, bicarbonate ions are shuttled across the RBC membrane. To maintain electroneutrality, an ion needs to be transported into the RBC. Chloride ions are commonly transported into the RBC to balance the movement of bicarbonate ions. Therefore, chloride is the correct answer in this context.

A snorkel is a tube used for breathing underwater while keeping the face submerged. When the snorkel is 2 feet long, it creates a longer pathway for the air to travel before reaching the lungs. This increased length results in an increased dead air space, which refers to the volume of air that remains in the snorkel and is not exchanged with fresh air during each breath. The dead air space reduces the efficiency of gas exchange, making it harder to breathe and obtain sufficient oxygen. Therefore, you can't breathe properly from a snorkel that is 2 feet long due to the increased dead air space.

Cl- is the correct answer because it is an ion that can be antiported across the RBC membrane to balance the charge of bicarbonate leaving the cell and entering the blood. Antiport is a type of transport mechanism where two different ions or molecules move in opposite directions across a membrane. In this case, Cl- moves in the opposite direction of bicarbonate to maintain electrical neutrality and ensure proper balance.

Atelectasis is the medical term used to describe a collapsed lung, where the alveoli, the tiny air sacs in the lungs, are physically collapsed and unable to exchange gases properly. This condition can be caused by various factors such as blockage of the airway, pressure on the lung, or a decrease in surfactant production. Symptoms may include shortness of breath, chest pain, and decreased oxygen levels. Treatment involves addressing the underlying cause, such as removing the blockage or applying positive pressure ventilation to reinflate the lung.

Congestive heart failure leads to a decrease in blood flow and oxygen supply to the tissues, causing ischemic hypoxia. This occurs because the heart is unable to pump blood effectively, resulting in inadequate oxygen delivery to the tissues. Ischemic hypoxia refers to a condition where there is a reduced blood supply to the tissues, leading to oxygen deprivation.

Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood through various means, including dissolved gas, bicarbonate ions, carbaminohemoglobin, and carbonic acid. However, it is not transported in the form of carbonate. Carbonate ions are not involved in the transport of carbon dioxide in the blood. Instead, carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid, which then dissociates into bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions. This bicarbonate ion is the primary form in which carbon dioxide is transported in the blood.

Congestive heart failure refers to the failure of the right ventricle of the heart, which occurs when there is increased pressure or resistance in the lungs to blood flow. This condition can be caused by various factors such as hypertension, coronary artery disease, or valve disorders. It leads to a decrease in the heart's ability to pump blood effectively, resulting in fluid accumulation in the lungs and other parts of the body. Cor pulmonale, on the other hand, specifically refers to right heart failure caused by lung disease, while pulmonary edema is the accumulation of fluid in the lungs.

Chronic bronchitis is a lung disease characterized by several specific symptoms. It is marked by a reduced number of cilia, which are tiny hair-like structures that help to move mucus out of the airways. The remaining cilia also have reduced motility, meaning they are less able to effectively move mucus. Goblet cell hypertrophy and hypersecretion occur, leading to an increased production of mucus. All of these factors contribute to the thickening of sputum, which is a common symptom of chronic bronchitis.

When the temperature rises, the oxygen dissociation curve shifts to the right. This means that at any given partial pressure of oxygen, hemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen, making it easier for oxygen to be released from hemoglobin and unloaded in the tissues. Therefore, the correct answer is that more oxygen unloads in the tissues when the temperature rises.

The correct answer is the tissues of the body. This is because carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product during cellular respiration in the tissues. It then diffuses out of the cells and into the bloodstream, where it is transported to the lungs. In the tissues, the concentration of carbon dioxide is higher compared to other locations such as the alveoli, trachea, or external air.

The vagus nerve is responsible for controlling quiet respiration. It is the longest cranial nerve and plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, including breathing. The vagus nerve innervates the muscles of the diaphragm, which is the main muscle involved in respiration. It helps to control the rate and depth of breathing during quiet, restful breathing. Therefore, the vagus nerve is the correct answer for this question.

Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, play a crucial role in transporting oxygen to tissues. Bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) helps in the release of oxygen from hemoglobin in red blood cells. When the levels of BPG are low, the ability of red blood cells to release oxygen is impaired. Therefore, erythrocytes low in BPG do not unload oxygen very well.

The correct answer is "left; less easily." This means that the hemoglobin oxygen dissociation curve for a fetus is shifted to the left compared to the adult curve. This indicates that fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen, meaning it binds to oxygen more tightly. As a result, oxygen unloads less easily from fetal hemoglobin compared to adult hemoglobin.

1,3-BPG (bisphosphoglycerate) has no effect on oxyhemoglobin dissociation. Oxyhemoglobin dissociation refers to the release of oxygen from hemoglobin in the presence of certain factors. High tissue carbon dioxide, low pH, and fever all promote the release of oxygen from hemoglobin, while blood pressure does not have a direct effect on this process. However, 1,3-BPG does not affect the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen and therefore does not impact oxyhemoglobin dissociation.

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