Chapter 2 - Psy 101

Sigmund Freud developed the theory of psychoanalysis, which is a theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy that emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts. Freud's work revolutionized the field of psychology and had a significant impact on our understanding of the human mind. He believed that unconscious thoughts and desires play a crucial role in shaping behavior and that bringing these hidden motivations to consciousness can lead to psychological healing. Freud's theories continue to be influential in psychology and have shaped many aspects of modern psychotherapy.

Freud proposed that personality development occurs through a series of psychosexual stages. In each stage, the child's sexual energy is focused on different areas of the body, known as erogenous zones, and the child's experiences during these stages shape their personality. This theory suggests that early experiences and conflicts related to sexuality play a significant role in the formation of adult personality.

Unconditional Positive Regard refers to the love or support given to another person without any conditions or judgment. It is a concept from Humanist Psychology that emphasizes the importance of accepting and valuing others for who they are, without imposing any expectations or requirements. This approach fosters an environment of trust, empathy, and understanding, allowing individuals to feel safe and accepted. Unconditional Positive Regard plays a significant role in building healthy relationships and promoting personal growth and self-acceptance.

Culture refers to a program of shared rules that govern the behavior of members of a community or society and a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by most members of that community. It encompasses the customs, traditions, language, arts, and social institutions that shape the way people think, behave, and interact with each other. Culture is a fundamental aspect of human society, influencing individuals' actions, perceptions, and social norms. It plays a crucial role in shaping individuals' identities and providing a sense of belonging and cohesion within a community.

The Id is the part of the personality that contains inherited psychic energy, particularly sexual and aggressive instincts. It operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of its desires without considering the consequences or societal norms. It is the most primitive and unconscious part of the personality, representing the basic biological drives and instincts. The Id is driven by the unconscious and seeks to satisfy its needs through the primary processes of wish fulfillment, often through fantasies and impulses.

Genes are the functional units of heredity that are composed of DNA and are responsible for specifying the structure of proteins. They carry the genetic information that is passed down from parents to offspring and determine various traits and characteristics. Genes play a crucial role in inheritance and are responsible for the transmission of genetic traits from one generation to the next.

Regression occurs when a person returns to a previous phase of psychological development. This can happen as a defense mechanism in response to stress or anxiety. It involves reverting to behaviors, thoughts, or emotions that were characteristic of an earlier stage of development, rather than dealing with the current situation in a more mature or adaptive way. Regression can provide temporary relief from stress, but it is not a healthy or effective long-term coping strategy.

Freud believed that the most crucial stage in a child's development is the phallic stage, which occurs between the ages of 3 to 5 or 6. During this stage, the child experiences the Oedipus or Electra complex, where they unconsciously develop feelings of attraction towards the parent of the opposite sex and rivalry towards the parent of the same sex. This stage is characterized by the child's curiosity and exploration of their own genitals, which Freud believed was a significant aspect of their psychosexual development.

The Oedipus Complex is a psychoanalytic theory proposed by Sigmund Freud. It suggests that during the phallic stage of development, a child experiences a conflict where they desire the parent of the opposite sex and view the same-sex parent as a rival. This complex is named after the Greek mythological character Oedipus, who unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. Freud believed that this complex was a normal part of development and that resolving it successfully was crucial for healthy psychosexual development.

Denial is the psychological defense mechanism that occurs when a person refuses to admit or acknowledge something unpleasant or threatening in order to protect their self-image and maintain a sense of invulnerability. This can involve denying the existence of a problem, minimizing its impact, or distorting reality to fit their desired narrative. By denying the unpleasant reality, individuals can temporarily avoid facing the discomfort or anxiety associated with it.

Projection is a psychological defense mechanism where a person unconsciously attributes their own unacceptable or threatening feelings, thoughts, or impulses onto someone else. This allows the person to avoid acknowledging and dealing with these feelings within themselves. By projecting these feelings onto another person, the individual can distance themselves from the discomfort or anxiety associated with those feelings. This can lead to misunderstandings, conflicts, and distorted perceptions of others.

Displacement occurs when people direct their emotions toward things, animals, or other people that are not the real object of their feelings. This can happen when individuals are unable or unwilling to express their emotions towards the actual source, so they redirect them onto something or someone else. It is a defense mechanism that helps individuals cope with their emotions by transferring them onto a safer target.

The superego is the part of personality that represents conscience, morality, and social standards. It is responsible for enforcing moral principles and values, as well as regulating behavior based on societal norms. The superego develops as a result of internalizing societal rules and expectations, and it acts as a moral compass, guiding individuals to make decisions that align with societal standards of right and wrong.

Humanist psychology is a psychological approach that focuses on personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential. It emphasizes the importance of individual experiences, free will, and self-actualization. Unlike other theories listed, such as social-cognitive learning theory, reciprocal determinism, and existentialism, humanist psychology specifically highlights the positive aspects of human nature and the potential for personal growth and self-improvement. This aligns with the description provided in the question, making humanist psychology the correct answer.

Repression is the process by which a threatening idea, memory, or emotion is blocked from consciousness. It involves pushing these thoughts or feelings into the unconscious mind to avoid dealing with them consciously. This defense mechanism helps protect the individual from experiencing distress or anxiety associated with the threatening content.

Behavioral genetics is the correct answer because it is the interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on the genetic factors that contribute to individual differences in behavior and personality. This field combines principles from genetics and psychology to understand how genes and the environment interact to shape human behavior. By studying genetic influences on behavior, behavioral geneticists aim to uncover the underlying genetic mechanisms that contribute to various traits and disorders, providing valuable insights into the nature-nurture debate.

Heritability is the statistical estimate of the proportion of the total variance in a trait that can be attributed to genetic differences among individuals within a group. This means that heritability measures how much of the variation in a trait can be explained by genetic factors. In the context of the given options, heritability is the most relevant term as it directly relates to the concept of genetic differences and their contribution to traits.

Carl Jung believed that all human beings share a vast collective unconscious, containing universal memories, symbols, images, and themes. He called these shared elements "archetypes." Archetypes are innate, universal concepts or patterns that exist in the collective unconscious and influence our thoughts, behaviors, and experiences. They represent fundamental human experiences and are expressed through various symbols and images in mythology, dreams, and art. These archetypes, according to Jung, are a reflection of our shared human history and represent common patterns of human behavior and understanding.

Reaction Formation occurs when an individual unconsciously transforms their true feelings or desires into the opposite in their conscious mind. This defense mechanism is used to cope with anxiety or guilt by adopting attitudes or behaviors that are the opposite of their true feelings. For example, someone who harbors feelings of anger towards a person may display excessive kindness and friendliness towards them. This allows the individual to deny or repress their true feelings and maintain a sense of emotional equilibrium.

The ego is the part of personality that represents reason, good sense, and rational self-control. It helps to mediate between the demands of the id (basic instincts and desires) and the superego (internalized moral standards). The ego operates on the reality principle, making decisions based on what is practical and socially acceptable. It helps individuals navigate the conflicts between their instincts and moral values, allowing them to make reasoned and controlled choices.

Temperaments refer to the physiological dispositions that individuals have to respond to their environment in certain ways. These temperaments are believed to be present from infancy and are considered to be innate, meaning they are not learned or acquired. This suggests that individuals are born with certain predispositions that influence their behaviors and reactions to the world around them.

Existentialism is a philosophical approach that focuses on the challenges and dilemmas that are inherent in human existence. It emphasizes the individual's freedom and responsibility to create their own meaning in life. Existentialists believe that individuals must confront the existential realities of death, meaninglessness, and isolation, and make choices that define their existence. This approach rejects the idea of predetermined purpose or meaning in life and encourages individuals to embrace their own autonomy and create their own values.

Objective tests (inventories) are standardized questionnaires that require written responses. They typically include scales on which people are asked to rate themselves. This type of personality test is popular as it provides a structured and standardized way to assess individuals' personality traits and characteristics. The use of scales allows for quantifiable data, making it easier to compare and analyze results. Objective tests are widely used in various fields, including psychology, human resources, and research, to gain insights into individuals' personalities and behaviors.

Reciprocal determinism refers to the idea that personality traits are shaped by a two-way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual. This means that a person's behavior and the environment they are in influence each other, and together they shape the development of personality traits. This concept is a key component of social-cognitive theories, which emphasize the importance of both internal and external factors in understanding personality.

Non Shared Environment refers to the unique aspects of a person's experience that are not shared with family members. This means that individuals have their own individual experiences, beliefs, and behaviors that are shaped by their environment outside of their family. It recognizes that people are influenced by factors beyond their family, such as friends, school, and community, which contribute to their development and individuality. This concept emphasizes the importance of understanding an individual's unique experiences and how they can shape their personality and behavior.

The Social-Cognitive Learning Theory explains that individuals learn by observing others and imitating their behavior. It emphasizes the role of cognition and how it influences behavior. This theory takes into account the similarities in traits across different situations, suggesting that individuals may exhibit consistent behavior patterns. Additionally, it also acknowledges the inconsistencies that can occur in behavior, recognizing that individuals may not always behave in the same way in every situation.

The Object-Relations School is a psychodynamic approach that focuses on the significance of the infant's early years and their relationships, particularly with the mother. This approach emphasizes how these early experiences shape the individual's sense of self and their ability to form and maintain relationships throughout their life. It explores the impact of early attachments and how they influence the individual's emotional and relational development.

Richard Nisbett analyzed the common assumption that male violence is an inevitable result of testosterone. He proposed an alternative explanation, suggesting that such violence actually stems from poverty or racial tension.