2019-rules Of Golf: Changes

See Rule 18.2a(1) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-18#18-2a). If the ball has not been found within these three minutes, then as a starting point it is lost, and you must proceed as follows:

1) If you have played a provisional ball, that ball is now the ball in play, and you must play on with it with a one stroke penalty.

2) If you have not played a provisional ball, you must either a) with a one stroke penalty play a ball from the spot, where you last played from* or b) (only if your club has introduced this alternative option in a Local Rule) with two penalty strokes drop a ball ahead (e.g. on the fairway) in accordance with the Local Rule.

*: When you are playing from where you last played, please be aware of this (Rule 14.6 - link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-14#14-6):

1) If you last played from the teeing area: You must play a ball from anywhere within the teeing area (you choose where), and you are allowed to tee the ball.

2) If you last played from the putting green: You must place a ball on the spot, where you last played from.

3) If you last played from other places (than the teeing area and the putting green): You must play a ball (must be dropped) within one club-length from the spot, where you last played (not nearer the hole).

In other words: Except on the putting green, you don’t have to play from that exact spot, you last played from!

See Rule 13-2a(2) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-13#13-2a). This is different from the old Rules (2018) (where you would have incurred a two stroke penalty in stroke play and lost the hole in match play).

See Rule 12.2a (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-12#12-2a) and Rule 15.1a (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-15#15-1a). Under the old Rules (2018) you would have incurred a two stroke penalty (stroke play) or lost the hole (match play).

When you move your ball in play, as a starting point you incur a one stroke penalty. BUT: There are four exceptions (Exception 2 (“E2") is the relevant one in this situation), where you are are not penalized:

E1: When you e.g. lift the ball under a Rule, that allows you to lift it.
E2: If it happens during search.
E3: If it happens on the putting green.
E4: If it happens when you are applying a Rule (e.g. during marking, replacing, measuring etc.).

Exception 2 thus states, that you are not penalized since it happened during search, and you must (just like you did) replace the ball. See Rule 9.4b (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-9#9-4b) and Rule 7.4 (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-7#7-4).

Under the old Rules (2018) you would have incurred a one stroke penalty.

See Rule 13.1c(2) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-13#13-1c). Under the old Rules (2018) you were only allowed to repair spike marks that could not affect the movement of the ball (typically only those not situated on the “line of putt”).

It is not easy to find out where exactly to drop the ball. Therefore I will give you an “easy” way and a “difficult way” to find out:

1) “The EASY way”.
a. Find the spot, where you estimate the ball lies (“X”).
b. Find the nearest fairway spot not nearer the hole (“Y”).
c. Drop within two club-lengths of “Y” (not nearer the hole).

”The easy way” is correct, but only shows you a part of the correct relief area (“the difficult way” shows you the entire relief area - see below). Answer 3 is thus the “the easy way” (you are not allowed to drop closer to the hole than X - therefore answer 1 and 2 are both wrong).

2) “The DIFFICULT way”.
On the drawing in the top you can see the entire relief area (purple). This area is anyway between:

- A line from the hole through X (and within two club-lengths to the outside of that line), and
- A line from the hole through Y (and within two club-lengths to the fairway side of that line).

You are free to choose where in the purple area, you will drop.

—-o0o—-

Please note, that you must estimate, where the ball lies in the rough… which one could say is a bit weird since you don’t know, where the ball lies! But you must estimate as good as you can (if you are a man: remember, that you cannot drive 280 yard… so maybe the spot is not as far ahead as you might think :-)!).

Also please remember, that you can only invoke this Local Rule if you DON’T find the ball in time (i.e. within the three minutes of searching time) in the rough. If you FIND it in the rough in time (e.g. after having searched for two minutes), you must either a) play it as it lies, or 2) proceed under the unplayable ball Rule with a one stroke penalty.

Under the old Rules (2018) answer number 1 was correct (two penalty strokes in stroke play and lost hole in match play).

See Rule 6.4b(2) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-6#6-4b) about “Ready Golf”. Thus in stroke play you are allowed to play out of turn, although you have not made an agreement with your fellow player about it, as long as you do it in a responsible way, such as 1) when you have a very short putt and want to hole out or 2) if you are ready to play (and your fellow player is not) and you don’t disturb/interfere/endanger anyone by playing out of turn. In match play “Ready Golf” is not available, but you can invite the opponent to play out of turn, or agree to the opponent’s request to play out of turn.

See Rule 13.1c(2) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-13#13-1c). Please note that you are allowed to repair such damage no matter where the ball lies (i.e. you are allowed to repair it even if the ball lies outside the putting green). But please also note, that you are only allowed to repair damage on the putting green. Thus this Rule does not allow you to repair animal footprints in your line of play e.g. in the bunker or on the fairway (if you do so, you could be penalized for improving your line of play).

See Rule 10.1a (link: Se Regel 10.1a (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-10#10-1a). This is a change compared to the 2018-Rules, where answer no. 1 was correct (one stroke and one penalty stroke).

See Rule 11.1 (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-11#11-1). You must play the ball as it lies. This is a modification from the old (2018) Rules, under which you would have incurred a one stroke penalty.

See Rule 16.3a (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-16#16-3a) (and Rule 13.1c(2)). If the same had happened on the fairway, the procedure would be different: Drop a ball within one club-length of (not nearer the hole than) the spot right behind the pitch-mark.

See Rule 11.1 (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-11#11-1). You must play the ball as it lies. This is modified from the old (2018) Rules, where you would have incurred a one stroke penalty for striking yourself.

If ANY part of the ball is under the surface, it is considered holed. See Rule 13.2c (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-13#13-2c). Under the old Rules (2018) the entire ball had to be below the surface, for the ball to be holed.

Please be aware, though, that if the flagstick is not in the hole, the Rules are the same as in 2018; the entire ball must be below the surface of the putting green (and at rest) for the ball to be holed (see the Definition of “Holed”: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/pages/definitions#definition-H).

As of 2019 there are no specific prohibitions in a penalty area. Before a stroke to your ball in a penalty area, you are thus allowed to e.g. 1) ground your club, 2) touch loose grass in a practice swing, 3) remove loose impediments from the penalty area and 4) touch the water in the backswing for the stroke. These things you were not allowed to do under the old Rules (2018) (a “penalty area” did not exist - something similar was called a “water hazard”).

In this situation you have dropped in a wrong way, but you can without penalty correct this error (by dropping from knee height) before you make a stroke. If you don’t correct the error before you make the stroke, you incur a one stroke penalty (if the ball furthermore in the drop came to rest outside the relief area, the penalty would increase to a total of two penalty strokes - lost hole in match play - for playing from a wrong place). See Rule 14.3b (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-14#14-3b).

When you move your ball in play, as a starting point you incur a one stroke penalty and must replace the ball. BUT: There are four exceptions (Exception 3 (“E3") is the relevant one in this situation), where you are not penalized despite having moved your ball in play:

E1: When you e.g. lift the ball under a Rule, that allows you to lift it.
E2: If it happens during search.
E3: If it happens on the putting green.
E4: If it happens when you are applying a Rule (e.g. during marking, replacing, measuring etc.).

Exception 3 thus states, that you are not penalized since it happened on the putting green, and you must replace the ball. See Rule 9.4b (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-9#9-4b).

If the same had happened on the fairway, you would have incurred a one stroke penalty!

Under the old Rules (2018) you would have incurred a one stroke penalty (unless a Local Rule was in place, stating that there was no penalty).

Therefore one club-length is typically the length of you driver. Please note, that there is no obligation to use a specific club to measure with. You are allowed to measure with your putter or a 9-iron etc….but that still does not change the fact, that “one club-length” is the length of the longest club you brought, other than a putter. A headcover does not count - the length thus is measured without the headcover :-).

By the way you don’t have to measure - the only thing that counts is, that you drop inside a correct relief area.

See the Definition of “Club-length” (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/pages/definitions?definitionsEdition=FullEdition#clublength).

See Rule 14.3b(2) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-14#14-3b). If you don’t drop from knee height (but e.g. from shoulder height) you can without penalty correct the error (by dropping from knee height) before you make a stroke. If you don’t correct the error before you make a stroke, you incur a one stroke penalty.

It is not easy to find out where exactly to drop a ball. Therefore I will give you an “easy” way and a “difficult way” to find out:

1) “The EASY way”.
a. Find the spot, where the ball last crossed the edge of the course boundary (“X”).
b. Find the nearest fairway spot not nearer the hole (“Y”).
c. Drop within two club-lengths of “Y” (not nearer the hole).

”The easy way” is correct, but only shows you a part of the correct relief area (“the difficult way” shows you the entire relief area - see below). Answer 3 is thus the “the easy way” (you are not allowed to drop closer to the hole than X - therefore answer 1 and 2 are both wrong).

2) “The DIFFICULT way”.
On the drawing in the top you can see the entire relief area (purple). This area is anyway between:

- A line from the hole through X (and within two club-lengths to the outside of that line), and
- A line from the hole through Y (and within two club-lengths to the fairway side of that line).

You must drop in bounds. You are free to choose where in the purple area, you will drop.

When you move your ball in play, as a starting point you incur a one stroke penalty and must replace the ball. BUT: There are four exceptions (Exception 3 (“E3") is the relevant one in this situation), where you are not penalized despite having moved your ball in play:

E1: When you e.g. lift the ball under a Rule, that allows you to lift it.
E2: If it happens during search.
E3: If it happens on the putting green.
E4: If it happens when you are applying a Rule (e.g. during marking, replacing, measuring etc.).

Exception 3 thus states, that you are not penalized since it happened on the putting green, and you must replace the ball. See Rule 9.4b (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-9#9-4b).

If the same had happened on the fairway, you would have incurred a one stroke penalty!

Under the old Rules (2018) you would have incurred a one stroke penalty (unless a local rule was in place, stating that there was no penalty).

See Rule 4.3a(1) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-4#4-3a). As of 2019 you are allowed to use a distance-measuring device, unless it is prohibited in a Local Rule (contrary to 2018, where you were not allowed to use it, unless a Local Rule allowed it).

See Rule 12.2b (link:https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-12#12-2b). Quite a few prohibitions from the old Rules (2018) thus have been repealed as of 2019, such as:

1) Touching/removing loose impediments in/from the bunker, when the ball lay in the bunker.
2) Grounding the club in the sand any other place than right in front of or right behind the ball.

You are therefore allowed to (as you did in this situation) ground the club in the sand, because you are tired and to lean on it to rest - as long as 1) it is not right in front of or right behind the ball and 2) you are not testing the sand (see no. 4 below).

There are still as of 2019 as a starting point four specific prohibitions, when your ball lies in a bunker:

1) You are not allowed to touch the sand with your club in a practice swing.
2) You are not allowed to touch the sand with your club in the backswing to the stroke.
3) You are not allowed to touch the sand with your club in the area right in front of or right behind the ball.
4) You are not allowed to deliberately touch the sand (e.g. with a hand, club, rake etc.) to test the condition of the sand to learn information for the next stroke.

See Rule 21.2b (at the bottom) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-21#21-2b). Normally the player should type the actual score for each hole on the scorecard. If the score is the same as or higher than the maximum score, the player can still write the actual score (whereafter the Committee then would adjust it to the maximum score) or the maximum score… or even not write any score (the Committee would then write the maximum score).

If the player does not hole out (e.g. because he/she lifts his ball when the maximum score is reached), he or she can simply write the maximum score (or don’t write anything).

Players are encouraged to stop playing, when their score has reached the maximum.

As of January 2019 you are allowed to take relief without penalty, when your ball is embedded in its own pitch-mark everywhere in the “general area” (i.e. both on the fairway and in the rough)… unless your club has introduced a Local Rule limiting relief to closely-mown areas, i.e cut to fairway-height or less. See Rule 16.3 (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-16#16-3). Under the old Rules (2018) you were only allowed relief without penalty if the ball was embedded in a closely-mown area “through the green”.

As of January 2019 you are allowed to substitute your ball when taking relief in this situation - you were not allowed to do so in 2018.

By the way remember, that for you to take relief without penalty the ball must be embedded in its OWN pitch-mark. Thus you have to be pretty sure, that is your own pitch-mark… otherwise you are not allowed a free relief (See interpretation 16.3a(2)/1 (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/interpretations/rule-16-interpretations#16-3a-2-1)).

The ball is considered moved by “natural forces” (wind, water etc.), unless it is known or virtually certain (i.e. at least 95 %!) that the ball is moved e.g. by the player, the opponent, a dog etc. In other words: Unless you are almost completely sure, that the ball is moved by the player or an opponent etc., then it is deemed to be moved by natural forces. So - in this situation the ball is considered moved by natural forces.

When a ball has been moved by natural forces, you must normally play the ball as it lies… but on the putting green there is a special Rule stating, that when you have (marked and) lifted the ball and replaced it, and it then moves, you must replace it (this must by the way be done no matter what caused the ball to move). See Rule 9.2b (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-9#9-2b), 9.3 (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-9#9-3) and 13.1d(2) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-13#13-1d).

See Rule 19.3b (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-19#19-3b). This is new in 2019 - you did not have such an option under the old Rules (2018).

Please be aware, that when you apply the “back-on-the-line” Rule, you should find a spot on the line and place e.g. a tee on that spot… and then drop a ball within one club-length of that spot, not nearer the hole.

You have not made a stroke, since it was not your intention to do so - see the Definition of a “Stroke” (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/pages/definitions?definitionsEdition=FullEdition#stroke).

Regarding a penalty: When you move your ball in play, as a starting point you incur a one stroke penalty and must replace the ball. BUT: There are four exceptions (Exception 3 (“E3") is the relevant one in this situation), where you are not penalized despite having moved your ball in play:

E1: When you e.g. lift the ball under a Rule, that allows you to lift it.
E2: If it happens during search.
E3: If it happens on the putting green.
E4: If it happens when you are applying a Rule (e.g. during marking, replacing, measuring etc.).

Exception 3 thus states, that you are not penalized since it happened on the putting green, and you must replace the ball. See Rule 9.4b (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-9#9-4b).

If the same had happened on the fairway, you would have incurred a one stroke penalty!

Under the old Rules (2018) you would have incurred a one stroke penalty (unless a local rule was in place, stating that there was no penalty).

See Rule 16.3b (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-16#16-3b). This is a modification from the old Rules (2018), where answer 1 was the right one (drop at the spot right behind the “embed-hole”).

As of January 2019 you are allowed to substitute your ball when taking relief in this situation - you were not allowed to do so in 2018.

By the way remember, that for you to take relief without penalty the ball must be embedded in its OWN pitch-mark. Thus you have to be pretty sure, that is your own pitch-mark… otherwise you are not allowed a free relief (See interpretation 16.3a(2)/1 (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/interpretations/rule-16-interpretations#16-3a-2-1)).

As of January 2019 you are allowed to take relief without penalty, when your ball is embedded in its own pitch-mark everywhere in the “general area” (i.e. both on the fairway and in the rough)… unless your club has introduced a Local Rule limiting relief to closely-mown areas, i.e. cut to fairway-height or less. See Rule 16.3 (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-16#16-3). In 2018 you were only allowed relief without penalty if the ball was embedded in a closely-mown area “through the green”.

As a starting point you have made an illegal improvement (Rule 8.1a - https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-8#8-1a). Rule 8.1c (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-8#8-1c) though states, that in this situation you can avoid penalty, if you correct the error (= replace the post) before you make a stroke at the ball. Since you indeed did correct the error, before you made the stroke, you did not incur any penalty.

Under the old Rules (2018) you would have been penalized at the moment you removed the post, and could not avoid the penalty by subsequently correcting the error.

See the definition of “Abnormal Course Condition” (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/pages/definitions#definition-A) which states, that these are abnormal course conditions:

1) Ground under repair.
2) Animal hole.
3) Temporary water.
4) Immovable obstructions.

Everywhere on the course (except if the ball is in a penalty area or if the condition is out of bounds) you are allowed free relief from interference by an abnormal course condition (Rule 16.1 - link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/players-edition/rule-16#16-1a). Since a bunker is not an “abnormal course condition”, you are (unfortunately!) not allowed free relief from interference by a bunker!

The term “abnormal course condition” is new in 2019. Under the old (2018) Rules there was a term called “abnormal GROUND condition” which was casual water (now “temporary water”), ground under repair and holes from burrowing animals etc.

You don’t have to invoke the Local Rule. Instead, you can go back with a one stroke penalty and play from the teeing area. See the Local Rule (model Local Rule E-5) in your club.

You don’t HAVE to apply the Local Rule (see the Local Rule in your club (Model Local Rule E-5)). If you prefer, you can instead play a ball from where your previous stroke was made* with a one stroke penalty.

*: When you play from where your previous stroke was made, be aware of this (Rule 14-6 - available here: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-14#14-6):

1) If your previous stroke was made from the TEEING AREA: You can play a ball from anywhere inside the teeing area, and it may be teed.

2) If your previous stroke was made from the PUTTING GREEN: You must place a ball on the spot, where the previous stroke was made.

3) If you last played from OTHER PLACES (i.e. from the general area, a bunker or a penalty area) e.g. from the fairway: You must drop a ball within one club-length of and not nearer the hole than the spot, where you last played from.

In other words: Except on the putting green, you don’t have to play from that exact spot, you last played from!

This is no longer a requirement (it was in 2018) - see Rule 7.3 (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-7#7-3).

A hole made by a dog is an “animal hole”, which is an “abnormal course condition” that you are allowed to take relief without penalty from, if you are interfered by it, and if your ball lies e.g. in the general area (e.g. on the fairway or in the rough). See Rule 16.1 (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-16#16-1). Under the old Rules (2018) a dog was not considered a “burrowing animal", and thus you were not allowed to take relief without penalty from interference by such a “dog hole”.

In general the ball is deemed to have been moved by “natural forces” (wind, gravity etc.), except if it is known or virtually certain (i.e. at least 95 % certain!) that the ball was moved e.g. by the player. In your situation it is not at least 95 % certain that you moved the ball. Therefore natural forces moved it and you must play it without penalty from where it lies (i.e. it is in the hole!). See Rule 9.2b (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-9#9-2b) and Rule 9.3 (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-9#9-3).

See Rule 13.2b(2) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-13#13-2b). This is a modification of the old (2018) Rules, under which you would have incurred two penalty strokes (match play: lost hole).

See the Definition of “Maximum Score” (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/pages/definitions?definitionsEdition=FullEdition#maximum-score):

A form of stroke play where a player’s or side’s score for a hole is capped at a maximum number of strokes (including strokes made and any penalty strokes) set by the Committee, such as two times par, a fixed number or net double bogey.

Such a stroke play form did not exist under the old Rules (2018).

See Interpretation 18.3a/2 (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/interpretations/rule-18-interpretations#18-3a-2). Under the old Rules (2018) you were not allowed to play a provisional ball, if you had walked more than 50 yards towards the first ball to search for it. As of January 1st 2019 you are allowed to play a provisional ball, even if you have reached the area and have begun searching for the first ball.

I would recommend, though, that you play the provisional ball before you go forward to search for the first ball.

Remember by the way that if you DO play a provisional ball, you cannot invoke the new Local Rule (allowing you to drop with a two stroke penalty ahead, e.g. on the fairway). Therefore you should always think twice, before you play a provisional ball.

You can only invoke this Local Rule, when you have not played a provisional ball. See the wording of the Local Rule in your club (model Local Rule E-5). Therefore you must play on with the provisional ball, which is now the ball in play, and you have played three strokes and the next is number four.

See Rule 16.1 (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-16#16-1). In 2018 (the old Rules) you were not allowed to substitute your ball when taking relief WITHOUT penalty; only when taking relief WITH penalty. But from January 2019 you are allowed to substitute your ball when taking relief, no matter if it is with or without penalty.

When proceeding under the “back-on-the-line-relief" option you SHOULD find a spot on the line and then mark it e.g. with a tee. Thus it is a recommendation - not a requirement. It is therefore perfectly OK if you don’t follow the procedure, but instead simply drop a ball somewhere on (or within one club-length of) the line. See Rule 17.1d(2) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-17#17-1d).

See Rule 13.1f (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-13#13-1f). Under the old Rules (2018) you were only required to take free relief, if the ball lay on the wrong green. From 2019 you must take free relief if the ball lies on the wrong green or if the wrong green physically interferes with the player’s area of intended stance (or intended swing). The club can though introduce a Local Rule stating that you are not required (or allowed) to take free relief if the wrong green interferes only the intended stance.

You cannot invoke this Local Rule, when you have played a provisional ball. See the Local Rule (model Local Rule E-5) in your club. Therefore you must play on with the provisional ball, which is now the ball in play, and your next stroke will be stroke number 4.

You are required to re-drop, if the ball comes to rest outside the relief area. In this situation the relief area is ONE club-length from (not nearer the hole than) the tee, you placed on the line. Since it rolled 1,5 club-lengths, you are required to re-drop (no matter where it ended).

See Rule 17.1d(2) (“back-on-the-line-relief”) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-17#17-1d) and Rule 14.3c(2) (re-dropping) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-14#14-3c)).

By the way please be aware, that “one club-length” is defined as the length of the longest club you have brought, other than a putter. Typically this club will be the driver. But you can measure with any club you like (a putter, a 9-iron etc.) - but it does not change the fact, that “one club-length” is the length of the longest club you have brought, other than a putter.

By the way you don’t HAVE to measure - the only thing that counts is, that you drop inside a correct relief area.

You have played a provisional ball if you either 1) use the word “provisional” or 2) otherwise clearly indicate, that you are playing the ball provisionally under Rule 18.3. The statement “I am playing a ball under Rule 18.3” is considered clear enough for the ball to be a provisional ball. See Rule 18.3b (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-18#18-3b) and Interpretation 18.3b/2 (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/interpretations/rule-18-interpretations#18-3b-2).

See Rule 4.1b(3) (replace) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-4#4-1b) and Rule 4.1a(2) (play on with it) (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-4#4-1a). This has been changed compared to 2018, where you in such a situation were not allowed to play on with it, and not allowed to substitute it with another club.

In contrary, under the old Rules (2018) it was the player with the highest number of Stableford points, who had the honour at the next hole. As of 2019 it does not matter, how many Stableford points they got - the player who has the lowest gross score at a hole, has the honour at the next hole. See Rule 6.4b (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-6#6-4b).

As of 2019 you must - when the ball has been played e.g. from the fairway - find the spot, from which you last played, and then drop a ball within one club-length from this spot (not nearer the hole). See Rule 18.2b (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-18#18-2b) and Rule 14.6b (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-14#14-6b). Thus this Rule has been modified; under the old (2018) Rules you had to play the ball from the exact same spot.

Remember, that if your club had introduced the new Local Rule allowing players to drop a ball with a two stroke penalty ahead e.g. on the fairway, you could instead have invoked this Local Rule.

There is no penalty. You are not required to (and you must not) re-drop when the ball (as in this situation) strikes your foot in the drop AFTER it first struck the course. If, however, the ball strikes your foot BEFORE it strikes the course, you are required to re-drop (with no limit to the number of times you have to re-drop). See Rule 14.3b (link: https://www.randa.org/en/rog/2019/rules/the-rules-of-golf/rule-14#14-3b).