H's TOEFL Ibt Reading Test (Plan B)

1. (5) The coastal hypothesis has gained increasing support in recent years because the remains of large land animals, such as caribou and brown bears, have been found in southeastern Alaska dating between 10,000 and 12,500 years ago. This is the time period in which most scientists formerly believed the area to be inhospitable for humans. It has been suggested that if the environment were capable of supporting breeding populations of bears, there would have been enough food resources to support humans. Fladmark and others believe that the first human colonization of America occurred by boat along the Northwest Coast during the very late Ice Age, possibly as early as 14,000 years ago. The most recent geologic evidence indicates that it may have been possible for people to colonize ice-free regions along the continental shelf that were still exposed by the lower sea level between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago. According to paragraph 5, the most recent geologic research provides support for a first colonization of America dating as far back as

6,000 years ago

14,000 years ago

12,500 years ago

10,000 years ago

The most recent geologic research provides support for a first colonization of America dating as far back as 14,000 years ago. This is indicated by the statement that "The most recent geologic evidence indicates that it may have been possible for people to colonize ice-free regions along the continental shelf that were still exposed by the lower sea level between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago." This suggests that humans could have colonized America by boat along the Northwest Coast during the very late Ice Age, possibly as early as 14,000 years ago.

Explanation

The most recent geologic research provides support for a first colonization of America dating as far back as 14,000 years ago. This is indicated by the statement that "The most recent geologic evidence indicates that it may have been possible for people to colonize ice-free regions along the continental shelf that were still exposed by the lower sea level between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago." This suggests that humans could have colonized America by boat along the Northwest Coast during the very late Ice Age, possibly as early as 14,000 years ago.

2. (1) It has long been accepted that the Americas were colonized by a migration of peoples from Asia slowly traveling across a land bridge called Beringia (now the Bering Strait between northeastern Asia and Alaska) during the last Ice Age. The first water craft theory about this migration was that around 11,000-12,000 years ago there was an ice-free corridor stretching from eastern Beringia to the areas of North America south of the great northern glaciers. It was this midcontinental corridor between two massive ice sheets—the Laurentide to the east and the Cordilleran to the west—that enabled the southward migration. But belief in this ice-free corridor began to crumble when paleoecologist Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the most important radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect. He persuasively argued that such an ice-free corridor did not exist until much later, when the continental ice began its final retreat. The word "persuasively" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Aggressively

Inflexibly

Convincingly

Carefully

The word "persuasively" in the passage indicates that Glen MacDonald presented his argument in a convincing and compelling manner. He provided strong evidence and reasoning to support his claim that the ice-free corridor did not exist until later, when the continental ice began to retreat. This suggests that his argument was logical and persuasive, leading others to believe his viewpoint. Therefore, the word "persuasively" in the passage is closest in meaning to "convincingly".

Explanation

The word "persuasively" in the passage indicates that Glen MacDonald presented his argument in a convincing and compelling manner. He provided strong evidence and reasoning to support his claim that the ice-free corridor did not exist until later, when the continental ice began to retreat. This suggests that his argument was logical and persuasive, leading others to believe his viewpoint. Therefore, the word "persuasively" in the passage is closest in meaning to "convincingly".

3. (2) Support is growing for the alternative theory that people using watercraft, possibly skin boats, moved southward from Beringla along the Gulf of Alaska and then southward along the Northwest Coast of North America possibly as early as 16,000 years ago. This route would have enabled humans to enter southern areas of the Americas prior to the melting of the continental glaciers. Until the early 1970s, most archaeologists did not consider the coast a possible migration route into the Americas because geologists originally believed that during the last Ice Age the entire Northwest Coast was covered by glacial ice. It had been assumed that the ice extended westward from the Alaskan/Canadian mountains to the very edge of the continental shelf—the flat, submerged part of the continent that extends into the ocean. This would have created a barrier of ice extending from the Alaska Peninsula, through the Gulf of Alaska and southward along the Northwest Coast of North America to what is today the state of Washington. The phrase "prior to" is closest in meaning to

Before

Immediately after

During

In spite of

The phrase "prior to" indicates a time that is before another event or action. In this context, it refers to the time before the melting of the continental glaciers. The explanation suggests that people using watercraft could have entered southern areas of the Americas before the glaciers melted, supporting the alternative theory of migration along the Northwest Coast of North America. Therefore, the correct answer is "before."

Explanation

The phrase "prior to" indicates a time that is before another event or action. In this context, it refers to the time before the melting of the continental glaciers. The explanation suggests that people using watercraft could have entered southern areas of the Americas before the glaciers melted, supporting the alternative theory of migration along the Northwest Coast of North America. Therefore, the correct answer is "before."

4. (3) Lichens helped to speed the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, preparing a soft bed of soil that was abundantly supplied with minerals that had been carried in the molten rock from the bowels of Earth. Now, other forms of life could take hold: ferns and mosses (two of the most ancient types of land plants) that flourish even in rock crevices. These plants propagate by producing spores—tiny fertilized cells that contain all the instructions for making a new plant—but the spores are unprotected by any outer coating and carry no supply of nutrient. Vast numbers of them fall on the ground beneath the mother plants. Sometimes they are carried farther afield by water or by wind. But only those few spores that settle down in very favorable locations can start new life; the vast majority fall on barren ground. By force of sheer numbers, however, the mosses and ferns reached Hawaii, survived, and multiplied. Some species developed great size, becoming tree ferns that even now grow in the Hawaiian forests. The word "abundantly" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Occasionally

Plentifully

Usefully

Fortunately

The word "abundantly" in the passage is closest in meaning to "plentifully". This means that there was a large amount or supply of minerals in the soil that had been carried in the molten rock from the Earth's interior. The lichens helped speed up the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, creating a soft bed of soil that was rich in minerals. This abundance of minerals allowed other forms of life, such as ferns and mosses, to take hold and flourish in rock crevices.

Explanation

The word "abundantly" in the passage is closest in meaning to "plentifully". This means that there was a large amount or supply of minerals in the soil that had been carried in the molten rock from the Earth's interior. The lichens helped speed up the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, creating a soft bed of soil that was rich in minerals. This abundance of minerals allowed other forms of life, such as ferns and mosses, to take hold and flourish in rock crevices.

5. (5) The coastal hypothesis has gained increasing support in recent years because the remains of large land animals, such as caribou and brown bears, have been found in southeastern Alaska dating between 10,000 and 12,500 years ago. This is the time period in which most scientists formerly believed the area to be inhospitable for humans. It has been suggested that if the environment were capable of supporting breeding populations of bears, there would have been enough food resources to support humans. Fladmark and others believe that the first human colonization of America occurred by boat along the Northwest Coast during the very late Ice Age, possibly as early as 14,000 years ago. The most recent geologic evidence indicates that it may have been possible for people to colonize ice-free regions along the continental shelf that were still exposed by the lower sea level between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago. The word "inhospitable" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Not familiar

Not suitable

Not dangerous

Not reachable

The word "inhospitable" in the passage refers to the belief that the area was not suitable for humans. This means that the environment was not conducive or favorable for human habitation.

Explanation

The word "inhospitable" in the passage refers to the belief that the area was not suitable for humans. This means that the environment was not conducive or favorable for human habitation.

6. Questions 11-20: REFLECTION IN TEACHING(1) Teachers, it is thought, benefit from the practice of reflection, the conscious act of thinking deeply about and carefully examining the interactions and events within their own classrooms. Educators T. Wildman and J. Niles (1987) describe a scheme for developing reflective practice in experienced teachers. This was justified by the view that reflective practice could help teachers to feel more intellectually involved in their role and work in teaching and enable them to cope with the paucity of scientific fact and the uncertainty of knowledge in the discipline of teaching. The word "justified" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Supported

Shaped

Stimulated

Suggested

The word "justified" in the passage is closest in meaning to "supported". This means that the scheme for developing reflective practice in experienced teachers was backed or upheld by the belief that it could help teachers feel more intellectually involved in their role and cope with the lack of scientific fact and uncertainty in teaching.

Explanation

The word "justified" in the passage is closest in meaning to "supported". This means that the scheme for developing reflective practice in experienced teachers was backed or upheld by the belief that it could help teachers feel more intellectually involved in their role and cope with the lack of scientific fact and uncertainty in teaching.

7. Questions 21-30: THE ARRIVAL OF PLANT LIFE IN HAWAII (1) When the Hawaiian Islands emerged from the sea as volcanoes, starting about five million years ago, they were far removed from other landmasses. Then, as blazing sunshine alternated with drenching rains, the harsh, barren surfaces of the black rocks slowly began to soften. Winds brought a variety of life-forms.(2) Spores light enough to float on the breezes were carried thousands of miles from more ancient lands and deposited at random across the bare mountain flanks. A few of these spores found a toehold on the dark, forbidding rocks and grew and began to work their transformation upon the land. Lichens were probably the first successful flora. These are not single individual plants: each one is a symbiotic combination of an alga and a fungus. The algae capture the Sun's energy by photosynthesis and store it in organic molecules. The fungi absorb moisture and mineral salts from the rocks, passing these on in waste products that nourish algae. It is significant that the earliest living things that built communities on these islands are examples of symbiosis, a phenomenon that depends upon the close cooperation of two or more forms of life and a principle that is very important in island communities. The phrase "at random" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Finally

Over a long period of time

Successfully

Without a definite pattern

The phrase "at random" in the passage refers to the spores being deposited across the bare mountain flanks without a definite pattern. This means that the spores were not deliberately or systematically placed, but rather scattered in a haphazard or unpredictable manner. The word "random" implies that there was no specific order or arrangement to how the spores were distributed, suggesting a lack of pattern or organization.

Explanation

The phrase "at random" in the passage refers to the spores being deposited across the bare mountain flanks without a definite pattern. This means that the spores were not deliberately or systematically placed, but rather scattered in a haphazard or unpredictable manner. The word "random" implies that there was no specific order or arrangement to how the spores were distributed, suggesting a lack of pattern or organization.

8. (3) Lichens helped to speed the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, preparing a soft bed of soil that was abundantly supplied with minerals that had been carried in the molten rock from the bowels of Earth. Now, other forms of life could take hold: ferns and mosses (two of the most ancient types of land plants) that flourish even in rock crevices. These plants propagate by producing spores—tiny fertilized cells that contain all the instructions for making a new plant—but the spores are unprotected by any outer coating and carry no supply of nutrient. Vast numbers of them fall on the ground beneath the mother plants. Sometimes they are carried farther afield by water or by wind. But only those few spores that settle down in very favorable locations can start new life; the vast majority fall on barren ground. By force of sheer numbers, however, the mosses and ferns reached Hawaii, survived, and multiplied. Some species developed great size, becoming tree ferns that even now grow in the Hawaiian forests. According to paragraph 3, what was the relationship between lichens and ferns in the development of plant life on Hawaii?

Ferns were able to grow because lichens created suitable soil. It is broken down quickly in the intestine.

The decomposition of ferns produced minerals that were used by lichens.

Lichens and ferns competed to grow in the same rocky environments.

Lichens and ferns were typically found together in volcanic areas.

The correct answer is: Ferns were able to grow because lichens created suitable soil. Lichens helped to speed up the decomposition of hard rock surfaces, creating a soft bed of soil that was rich in minerals. This prepared the ground for other forms of life, including ferns, to take hold and thrive.

Explanation

The correct answer is: Ferns were able to grow because lichens created suitable soil. Lichens helped to speed up the decomposition of hard rock surfaces, creating a soft bed of soil that was rich in minerals. This prepared the ground for other forms of life, including ferns, to take hold and thrive.

9. (4) More recent geologic studies documented deglaciation and the existence of icefree areas throughout major coastal areas of British Columbia, Canada, by 13,000 years ago. Research now indicates that sizable areas of southeastern Alaska along the inner continental shelf were not covered by ice toward the end of the last Ice Age. One study suggests that except for a 250-mile coastal area between southwestern British Columbia and Washington State, the Northwest Coast of North America was largely free of ice by approximately 16,000 years ago. Vast areas along the coast may have been deglaciated beginning around 16,000 years ago, possibly providing a coastal corridor for the movement of plants, animals, and humans sometime between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago. The author's purpose in paragraph 4 is to

Indicate that a number of recent geologic studies seem to provide support for the coastal hypothesis

Indicate that coastal and inland migrations may have happened simultaneously

Explain why humans may have reached America's northwest coast before animals and plants did

The correct answer is to indicate that a number of recent geologic studies seem to provide support for the coastal hypothesis. This is evident from the passage where the author mentions "More recent geologic studies documented deglaciation and the existence of ice-free areas throughout major coastal areas of British Columbia, Canada, by 13,000 years ago" and "One study suggests that except for a 250-mile coastal area between southwestern British Columbia and Washington State, the Northwest Coast of North America was largely free of ice by approximately 16,000 years ago." These statements highlight the evidence from recent studies that support the idea of a coastal migration route.

Explanation

The correct answer is to indicate that a number of recent geologic studies seem to provide support for the coastal hypothesis. This is evident from the passage where the author mentions "More recent geologic studies documented deglaciation and the existence of ice-free areas throughout major coastal areas of British Columbia, Canada, by 13,000 years ago" and "One study suggests that except for a 250-mile coastal area between southwestern British Columbia and Washington State, the Northwest Coast of North America was largely free of ice by approximately 16,000 years ago." These statements highlight the evidence from recent studies that support the idea of a coastal migration route.

10. (1) Teachers, it is thought, benefit from the practice of reflection, the conscious act of thinking deeply about and carefully examining the interactions and events within their own classrooms. Educators T. Wildman and J. Niles (1987) describe a scheme for developing reflective practice in experienced teachers. This was justified by the view that reflective practice could help teachers to feel more intellectually involved in their role and work in teaching and enable them to cope with the paucity of scientific fact and the uncertainty of knowledge in the discipline of teaching. According to paragraph 1, it was believed that reflection could help teachers

Understand intellectual principles of teaching

Strengthen their intellectual connection to their work

Use scientific fact to improve discipline and teaching

Adopt a more disciplined approach to teaching

According to the passage, reflection was believed to help teachers strengthen their intellectual connection to their work. This means that by engaging in reflection, teachers would feel more intellectually involved in their role and work in teaching. Reflection would enable teachers to think deeply about and carefully examine the interactions and events within their own classrooms, thus enhancing their understanding and connection to their profession.

Explanation

According to the passage, reflection was believed to help teachers strengthen their intellectual connection to their work. This means that by engaging in reflection, teachers would feel more intellectually involved in their role and work in teaching. Reflection would enable teachers to think deeply about and carefully examine the interactions and events within their own classrooms, thus enhancing their understanding and connection to their profession.

11. (4) Many millions of years after ferns evolved (but long before the Hawaiian Islands were born from the sea), another kind of flora evolved on Earth: the seed-bearing plants. This was a wonderful biological invention. The seed has an outer coating that surrounds the genetic material of the new plant, and inside this covering is a concentrated supply of nutrients. Thus, the seed's chances of survival are greatly enhanced over those of the naked spore. One type of seed-bearing plant, the angiosperm, includes all forms of blooming vegetation. In the angiosperm the seeds are wrapped in an additional layer of covering. Some of these coats are hard—like the shell of a nut—for extra protection. Some are soft and tempting, like a peach or a cherry. In some angiosperms the seeds are equipped with gossamer wings, like the dandelion and milkweed seeds. These new characteristics offered better ways for the seeds to move to new habitats. They could travel through the air, float in water, and lie dormant for many months. The word "dormant" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Hidden

Inactive

Underground

Preserved

In the passage, it is mentioned that the seeds of angiosperms can lie dormant for many months. The word "dormant" means inactive or in a state of rest. This implies that the seeds are not actively growing or developing during this period. Therefore, the closest meaning to "dormant" in the passage is "inactive".

Explanation

In the passage, it is mentioned that the seeds of angiosperms can lie dormant for many months. The word "dormant" means inactive or in a state of rest. This implies that the seeds are not actively growing or developing during this period. Therefore, the closest meaning to "dormant" in the passage is "inactive".

12. (3) Wildman and Niles observed that systematic reflection on teaching required a sound ability to understand classroom events in an objective manner. They describe the initial understanding in the teachers with whom they were working as being "utilitarian … and not rich or detailed enough to drive systematic reflection." Teachers rarely have the time or opportunities to view their own or the teaching of others in an objective manner. Further observation revealed the tendency of teachers to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by, in effect, standing outside thesituation. The word "objective" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Unbiased

Positive

Systematic

Thorough

The word "objective" in the passage is closest in meaning to "unbiased". This is because the passage mentions that teachers need to understand classroom events in an objective manner, which means they need to view them without any bias or personal opinions. The passage also contrasts this objective understanding with the tendency of teachers to evaluate events, implying that this evaluation is not unbiased or objective. Therefore, "unbiased" is the most appropriate synonym for "objective" in this context.

Explanation

The word "objective" in the passage is closest in meaning to "unbiased". This is because the passage mentions that teachers need to understand classroom events in an objective manner, which means they need to view them without any bias or personal opinions. The passage also contrasts this objective understanding with the tendency of teachers to evaluate events, implying that this evaluation is not unbiased or objective. Therefore, "unbiased" is the most appropriate synonym for "objective" in this context.

13. (3) Lichens helped to speed the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, preparing a soft bed of soil that was abundantly supplied with minerals that had been carried in the molten rock from the bowels of Earth. Now, other forms of life could take hold: ferns and mosses (two of the most ancient types of land plants) that flourish even in rock crevices. These plants propagate by producing spores—tiny fertilized cells that contain all the instructions for making a new plant—but the spores are unprotected by any outer coating and carry no supply of nutrient. Vast numbers of them fall on the ground beneath the mother plants. Sometimes they are carried farther afield by water or by wind. But only those few spores that settle down in very favorable locations can start new life; the vast majority fall on barren ground. By force of sheer numbers, however, the mosses and ferns reached Hawaii, survived, and multiplied. Some species developed great size, becoming tree ferns that even now grow in the Hawaiian forests. The word "propagate" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Multiply

Emerge

Live

Evolve

The word "propagate" in the passage is closest in meaning to "multiply." This is because "propagate" refers to the process of reproducing or increasing in number, which is synonymous with multiplying.

Explanation

The word "propagate" in the passage is closest in meaning to "multiply." This is because "propagate" refers to the process of reproducing or increasing in number, which is synonymous with multiplying.

14. (6) The coastal hypothesis suggests an economy based on marine mammal hunting, saltwater fishing, shellfish gathering, and the use of watercraft. Because of the barrier of ice to the east, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and populated areas to the north, there may have been a greater impetus for people to move in a southerly direction. The word "impetus" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Chance

Protection

Possibility

Incentive

The word "impetus" in the passage suggests that there may have been a strong motivation or driving force for people to move in a southerly direction. This motivation could be seen as an "incentive" for people to leave their current location and move towards the south.

Explanation

The word "impetus" in the passage suggests that there may have been a strong motivation or driving force for people to move in a southerly direction. This motivation could be seen as an "incentive" for people to leave their current location and move towards the south.

15. Questions 1-10: COLONIZING THE AMERICAS VIA THE NORTHWEST COAST (1) It has long been accepted that the Americas were colonized by a migration of peoples from Asia slowly traveling across a land bridge called Beringia (now the Bering Strait between northeastern Asia and Alaska) during the last Ice Age. The first water craft theory about this migration was that around 11,000-12,000 years ago there was an ice-free corridor stretching from eastern Beringia to the areas of North America south of the great northern glaciers. It was this midcontinental corridor between two massive ice sheets—the Laurentide to the east and the Cordilleran to the west—that enabled the southward migration. But belief in this ice-free corridor began to crumble when paleoecologist Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the most important radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect. He persuasively argued that such an ice-free corridor did not exist until much later, when the continental ice began its final retreat. According to paragraph 1, the theory that people first migrated to the Americas by way of an ice-free corridor was seriously called into question by

Paleoecologist Glen MacDonald's argument that the original migration occurred much later than had previously been believed

The demonstration that certain previously accepted radiocarbon dates were incorrect

Evidence that the continental ice began its final retreat much later than had previously been believed

Research showing that the ice-free corridor was not as long lasting as had been widely assumed

The passage states that paleoecologist Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect. This means that the theory of an ice-free corridor was called into question because the evidence supporting it was found to be faulty. Therefore, the correct answer is "the demonstration that certain previously accepted radiocarbon dates were incorrect."

Explanation

The passage states that paleoecologist Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect. This means that the theory of an ice-free corridor was called into question because the evidence supporting it was found to be faulty. Therefore, the correct answer is "the demonstration that certain previously accepted radiocarbon dates were incorrect."

16. (4) Helping this group of teachers to revise their thinking about classroom events became central. This process took time and patience and effective trainers. The researchers estimate that the initial training of the teachers to view events objectively took between 20 and 30 hours, with the same number of hours again being required to practice the skills of reflection. How is paragraph 4 related to other aspects of the discussion of reflection in the passage?

It describes and comments on steps taken to overcome problems identified earlier in the passage.

It challenges the earlier claim that teachers rarely have the time to think about their own or others' teaching.

It identifies advantages gained by teachers who followed the training program described earlier in the passage.

It explains the process used to define the principles discussed later in the passage.

The correct answer is "It describes and comments on steps taken to overcome problems identified earlier in the passage." The paragraph discusses the process of helping teachers revise their thinking about classroom events, which was identified as a problem earlier in the passage. It mentions that this process took time, patience, and effective trainers, indicating the steps taken to overcome the identified problems.

Explanation

The correct answer is "It describes and comments on steps taken to overcome problems identified earlier in the passage." The paragraph discusses the process of helping teachers revise their thinking about classroom events, which was identified as a problem earlier in the passage. It mentions that this process took time, patience, and effective trainers, indicating the steps taken to overcome the identified problems.

17. (4) Many millions of years after ferns evolved (but long before the Hawaiian Islands were born from the sea), another kind of flora evolved on Earth: the seed-bearing plants. This was a wonderful biological invention. The seed has an outer coating that surrounds the genetic material of the new plant, and inside this covering is a concentrated supply of nutrients. Thus, the seed's chances of survival are greatly enhanced over those of the naked spore. One type of seed-bearing plant, the angiosperm, includes all forms of blooming vegetation. In the angiosperm the seeds are wrapped in an additional layer of covering. Some of these coats are hard—like the shell of a nut—for extra protection. Some are soft and tempting, like a peach or a cherry. In some angiosperms the seeds are equipped with gossamer wings, like the dandelion and milkweed seeds. These new characteristics offered better ways for the seeds to move to new habitats. They could travel through the air, float in water, and lie dormant for many months. Why does the author mention "a nut," "a peach," and "a cherry"?

To indicate that some seeds are less likely to survive than others

To point out that many angiosperms can be eaten

To provide examples of blooming plants

To illustrate the variety of coverings among angiosperm seeds

The author mentions "a nut," "a peach," and "a cherry" to illustrate the variety of coverings among angiosperm seeds. This is evident from the sentence that states, "Some of these coats are hard—like the shell of a nut—for extra protection. Some are soft and tempting, like a peach or a cherry." By providing these examples, the author highlights that angiosperm seeds can have different types of coverings, ranging from hard shells to soft and tempting coatings. This emphasizes the diversity in the characteristics of angiosperm seeds.

Explanation

The author mentions "a nut," "a peach," and "a cherry" to illustrate the variety of coverings among angiosperm seeds. This is evident from the sentence that states, "Some of these coats are hard—like the shell of a nut—for extra protection. Some are soft and tempting, like a peach or a cherry." By providing these examples, the author highlights that angiosperm seeds can have different types of coverings, ranging from hard shells to soft and tempting coatings. This emphasizes the diversity in the characteristics of angiosperm seeds.

18. (5) The coastal hypothesis has gained increasing support in recent years because the remains of large land animals, such as caribou and brown bears, have been found in southeastern Alaska dating between 10,000 and 12,500 years ago. This is the time period in which most scientists formerly believed the area to be inhospitable for humans. It has been suggested that if the environment were capable of supporting breeding populations of bears, there would have been enough food resources to support humans. Fladmark and others believe that the first human colonization of America occurred by boat along the Northwest Coast during the very late Ice Age, possibly as early as 14,000 years ago. The most recent geologic evidence indicates that it may have been possible for people to colonize ice-free regions along the continental shelf that were still exposed by the lower sea level between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago. According to paragraph 5, the discovery of the remains of large land animals supports the coastal hypothesis by providing evidence that

Humans were changing their hunting techniques to adapt to coastal rather than inland environments

Animals had migrated from the inland to the coasts, an indication that a midcontinental ice-free corridor was actually implausible

Humans probably would have been able to find enough resources along the coastal corridor

The continental shelf was still exposed by lower sea levels during the period when the southward migration of people began

The discovery of the remains of large land animals in southeastern Alaska dating between 10,000 and 12,500 years ago supports the coastal hypothesis because it suggests that humans were able to find enough resources along the coastal corridor. If the environment was capable of supporting breeding populations of bears, there would have been enough food resources to support humans as well. This finding contradicts the previous belief that the area was inhospitable for humans during that time period. Therefore, the discovery of these remains provides evidence that humans were able to adapt to coastal environments and find enough resources to survive.

Explanation

The discovery of the remains of large land animals in southeastern Alaska dating between 10,000 and 12,500 years ago supports the coastal hypothesis because it suggests that humans were able to find enough resources along the coastal corridor. If the environment was capable of supporting breeding populations of bears, there would have been enough food resources to support humans as well. This finding contradicts the previous belief that the area was inhospitable for humans during that time period. Therefore, the discovery of these remains provides evidence that humans were able to adapt to coastal environments and find enough resources to survive.

19. (3) The most influential proponent of the coastal migration route has been Canadian archaeologist Knut Fladmark. He theorized that with the use of watercraft, people gradually colonized unglaciated refuges and areas along the continental shelf exposed by the lower sea level. Fladmark's hypothesis received additional support from the fact that the greatest diversity in Native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americas, suggesting that this region has been settled the longest. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the underlined sentence in passage 3? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Because this region has been settled the longest, it also displays the greatest diversity in Native American languages.

Fladmark's hypothesis states that the west coast of the Americas has been settled longer than any other region.

According to Fladmark, Mauve American languages have survived the longest along the west coast of the Americas.

The sentence states that the greatest diversity in Native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americas, which supports Fladmark's hypothesis. This means that the diversity of languages in this region provides evidence for the theory proposed by Fladmark. The sentence does not mention the settlement duration or the survival of languages, so options A and D are incorrect. Option B changes the meaning by stating that the west coast has been settled longer than any other region, which is not mentioned in the sentence. Therefore, the best expression of the essential information is option C.

Explanation

The sentence states that the greatest diversity in Native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americas, which supports Fladmark's hypothesis. This means that the diversity of languages in this region provides evidence for the theory proposed by Fladmark. The sentence does not mention the settlement duration or the survival of languages, so options A and D are incorrect. Option B changes the meaning by stating that the west coast has been settled longer than any other region, which is not mentioned in the sentence. Therefore, the best expression of the essential information is option C.

20. (2) Spores light enough to float on the breezes were carried thousands of miles from more ancient lands and deposited at random across the bare mountain flanks. A few of these spores found a toehold on the dark, forbidding rocks and grew and began to work their transformation upon the land. Lichens were probably the first successful flora. These are not single individual plants: each one is a symbiotic combination of an alga and a fungus. The algae capture the Sun's energy by photosynthesis and store it in organic molecules. The fungi absorb moisture and mineral salts from the rocks, passing these on in waste products that nourish algae. It is significant that the earliest living things that built communities on these islands are examples of symbiosis, a phenomenon that depends upon the close cooperation of two or more forms of life and a principle that is very important in island communities. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that the fungi in lichens benefit from their symbiotic relationship with algae in what way?

The algae help the fungi meet some of their energy needs.

The algae protect the fungi from the Sun's radiation.

The algae provide the fungi with greater space for absorbing water.

The fungi produce less waste in the presence of algae.

The passage states that the algae in lichens capture the Sun's energy through photosynthesis and store it in organic molecules. The fungi, on the other hand, absorb moisture and mineral salts from the rocks and pass them on to the algae in waste products. This suggests that the fungi benefit from the symbiotic relationship with algae by obtaining some of their energy needs from the stored energy in the organic molecules produced by the algae. Therefore, the correct answer is that the algae help the fungi meet some of their energy needs.

Explanation

The passage states that the algae in lichens capture the Sun's energy through photosynthesis and store it in organic molecules. The fungi, on the other hand, absorb moisture and mineral salts from the rocks and pass them on to the algae in waste products. This suggests that the fungi benefit from the symbiotic relationship with algae by obtaining some of their energy needs from the stored energy in the organic molecules produced by the algae. Therefore, the correct answer is that the algae help the fungi meet some of their energy needs.

21. (2) Wildman and Niles were particularly interested in investigating the conditions under which reflection might flourish—a subject on which there is little guidance in the literature. They designed an experimental strategy for a group of teachers in Virginia and worked with 40 practicing teachers over several years. They were concerned that many would be "drawn to these new, refreshing conceptions of teaching only to find that the void between the abstractions and the realities of teacher reflection is too great to bridge. Reflection on a complex task such as teaching is not easy." The teachers were taken through a program of talking about teaching events, moving on to reflecting about specific issues in a supported, and later an independent, manner. The word "flourish" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Continue

Occur

Succeed

Apply

The word "flourish" in the passage is closest in meaning to "succeed". This is because the passage states that Wildman and Niles were interested in investigating the conditions under which reflection might flourish. When something flourishes, it thrives and succeeds. Therefore, "succeed" is the most appropriate synonym for "flourish" in this context.

Explanation

The word "flourish" in the passage is closest in meaning to "succeed". This is because the passage states that Wildman and Niles were interested in investigating the conditions under which reflection might flourish. When something flourishes, it thrives and succeeds. Therefore, "succeed" is the most appropriate synonym for "flourish" in this context.

22. (6) The work of Wildman and Niles suggests the importance of recognizing some of the difficulties of instituting reflective practice. Others have noted this, making a similar point about the teaching profession's cultural inhibitions about reflective practice. Zeichner and Liston (1987) point out the inconsistency between the role of the teacher as a (reflective) professional decision maker and the more usual role of the teacher as a technician, putting into practice the ideas of others. More basic than the cultural issues is the matter of motivation. Becoming a reflective practitioner requires extra work (Jaworski,1993) and has only vaguely defined goals with, perhaps, little initially perceivable reward and the threat of vulnerability. Few have directly questioned what might lead a teacher to want to become reflective. Apparently, the most obvious reason for teachers to work toward reflective practice is that teacher educators think it is a good thing. There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect—for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the underlined sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

The practice of being reflective is no longer simply a habit among teachers but something that is externally motivated.

Most teachers need to explore ways to form the habit of reflection even when no external motivation exists.

There has not been enough exploration of why teachers practice reflection as a habit with or without external motivation.

The passage discusses the difficulties of instituting reflective practice among teachers and highlights the inconsistency between the role of a teacher as a reflective professional decision maker and the more common role of a teacher as a technician. It also mentions the matter of motivation, stating that becoming a reflective practitioner requires extra work and has vaguely defined goals with little initially perceivable reward and the threat of vulnerability. The passage then suggests that there are many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect, including the value of externally motivated reflection compared to habitual reflection among teachers. Therefore, the sentence "Many aspects of the motivation to reflect have not been studied, including the comparative benefits of externally motivated and habitual reflection among teachers" best expresses the essential information in the underlined sentence.

Explanation

The passage discusses the difficulties of instituting reflective practice among teachers and highlights the inconsistency between the role of a teacher as a reflective professional decision maker and the more common role of a teacher as a technician. It also mentions the matter of motivation, stating that becoming a reflective practitioner requires extra work and has vaguely defined goals with little initially perceivable reward and the threat of vulnerability. The passage then suggests that there are many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect, including the value of externally motivated reflection compared to habitual reflection among teachers. Therefore, the sentence "Many aspects of the motivation to reflect have not been studied, including the comparative benefits of externally motivated and habitual reflection among teachers" best expresses the essential information in the underlined sentence.

23. (4) Many millions of years after ferns evolved (but long before the Hawaiian Islands were born from the sea), another kind of flora evolved on Earth: the seed-bearing plants. This was a wonderful biological invention. The seed has an outer coating that surrounds the genetic material of the new plant, and inside this covering is a concentrated supply of nutrients. Thus, the seed's chances of survival are greatly enhanced over those of the naked spore. One type of seed-bearing plant, the angiosperm, includes all forms of blooming vegetation. In the angiosperm the seeds are wrapped in an additional layer of covering. Some of these coats are hard—like the shell of a nut—for extra protection. Some are soft and tempting, like a peach or a cherry. In some angiosperms the seeds are equipped with gossamer wings, like the dandelion and milkweed seeds. These new characteristics offered better ways for the seeds to move to new habitats. They could travel through the air, float in water, and lie dormant for many months. The word "This" in the passage refers to

The spread of ferns and mosses in Hawaii

The creation of the Hawaiian Islands

The evolution of ferns

The development of plants that produce seeds

The word "this" in the passage refers to the development of plants that produce seeds. The passage discusses the evolution of seed-bearing plants, which was described as a "wonderful biological invention." It explains that seeds have an outer coating and a concentrated supply of nutrients, which greatly enhance their chances of survival compared to naked spores. The passage also mentions the different characteristics of angiosperms, such as hard or soft coverings, gossamer wings, and the ability to travel through air or water. Therefore, "this" refers to the development and characteristics of plants that produce seeds.

Explanation

The word "this" in the passage refers to the development of plants that produce seeds. The passage discusses the evolution of seed-bearing plants, which was described as a "wonderful biological invention." It explains that seeds have an outer coating and a concentrated supply of nutrients, which greatly enhance their chances of survival compared to naked spores. The passage also mentions the different characteristics of angiosperms, such as hard or soft coverings, gossamer wings, and the ability to travel through air or water. Therefore, "this" refers to the development and characteristics of plants that produce seeds.

24. (5) Plants with large, buoyant seeds—like coconuts—drift on ocean currents and are washed up on the shores. Remarkably resistant to the vicissitudes of ocean travel, they can survive prolonged immersion in saltwater. When they come to rest on warm beaches and the conditions are favorable, the seed coats soften. Nourished by their imported supply of nutrients, the young plants push out their roots and establish their place in the sun.(6) By means of these seeds, plants spread more widely to new locations, even to isolated islands like the Hawaiian archipelago, which lies more than 2,000 miles west of California and 3,500 miles east of Japan. The seeds of grasses, flowers, and blooming trees made the long trips to these islands. (Grasses are simple forms of angiosperms that bear their encapsulated seeds on long stalks.) In a surprisingly short time, angiosperms filled many of the land areas on Hawaii that had been bare. According to paragraph 5, a major reason that coconuts can establish themselves in distant locations is that their seeds can

Survive long exposure to heat on island beaches

Float and survive for long periods in ocean water

Use saltwater for maintenance and growth

Maintain hard, protective coats even after growing roots

The correct answer is "float and survive for long periods in ocean water." According to the passage, plants with large, buoyant seeds like coconuts can drift on ocean currents and survive prolonged immersion in saltwater. This allows them to be carried to distant locations and eventually establish themselves on warm beaches. The passage does not mention exposure to heat on island beaches, the use of saltwater for maintenance and growth, or the maintenance of hard, protective coats after growing roots.

Explanation

The correct answer is "float and survive for long periods in ocean water." According to the passage, plants with large, buoyant seeds like coconuts can drift on ocean currents and survive prolonged immersion in saltwater. This allows them to be carried to distant locations and eventually establish themselves on warm beaches. The passage does not mention exposure to heat on island beaches, the use of saltwater for maintenance and growth, or the maintenance of hard, protective coats after growing roots.

25. (2) Support is growing for the alternative theory that people using watercraft, possibly skin boats, moved southward from Beringla along the Gulf of Alaska and then southward along the Northwest Coast of North America possibly as early as 16,000 years ago. This route would have enabled humans to enter southern areas of the Americas prior to the melting of the continental glaciers. Until the early 1970s, most archaeologists did not consider the coast a possible migration route into the Americas because geologists originally believed that during the last Ice Age the entire Northwest Coast was covered by glacial ice. It had been assumed that the ice extended westward from the Alaskan/Canadian mountains to the very edge of the continental shelf—the flat, submerged part of the continent that extends into the ocean. This would have created a barrier of ice extending from the Alaska Peninsula, through the Gulf of Alaska and southward along the Northwest Coast of North America to what is today the state of Washington. Paragraph 2 begins by presenting a theory and then goes on to

Discuss why the theory was rapidly accepted but then rejected

Present the evidence on which the theory was based

Cite evidence that now shows that the theory is incorrect

Explain why the theory was not initially considered plausible

Paragraph 2 explains why the theory of people using watercraft to migrate southward along the Northwest Coast of North America was not initially considered plausible. It states that archaeologists did not consider this route because geologists believed that the entire Northwest Coast was covered by glacial ice during the last Ice Age. It was assumed that the ice created a barrier extending from the Alaska Peninsula to the state of Washington. This information provides an explanation for why the theory was not initially accepted.

Explanation

Paragraph 2 explains why the theory of people using watercraft to migrate southward along the Northwest Coast of North America was not initially considered plausible. It states that archaeologists did not consider this route because geologists believed that the entire Northwest Coast was covered by glacial ice during the last Ice Age. It was assumed that the ice created a barrier extending from the Alaska Peninsula to the state of Washington. This information provides an explanation for why the theory was not initially accepted.

26. (1) When the Hawaiian Islands emerged from the sea as volcanoes, starting about five million years ago, they were far removed from other landmasses. Then, as blazing sunshine alternated with drenching rains, the harsh, barren surfaces of the black rocks slowly began to soften. Winds brought a variety of life-forms.(2) Spores light enough to float on the breezes were carried thousands of miles from more ancient lands and deposited at random across the bare mountain flanks. A few of these spores found a toehold on the dark, forbidding rocks and grew and began to work their transformation upon the land. Lichens were probably the first successful flora. These are not single individual plants: each one is a symbiotic combination of an alga and a fungus. The algae capture the Sun's energy by photosynthesis and store it in organic molecules. The fungi absorb moisture and mineral salts from the rocks, passing these on in waste products that nourish algae. It is significant that the earliest living things that built communities on these islands are examples of symbiosis, a phenomenon that depends upon the close cooperation of two or more forms of life and a principle that is very important in island communities. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the underlined sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Some of the earliest important examples of symbiosis—the close cooperation of two or more living things—occur in island communities.

Symbiosis—the close cooperation of pairs or small groups of living organisms—is especially important in these island environments.

The passage explains that the earliest living things on the Hawaiian Islands were examples of symbiosis, a close cooperation between two or more forms of life. This relationship, known as symbiosis, is particularly important in island communities. The correct answer accurately conveys this information by stating that the first organisms on the islands worked together closely in a relationship known as symbiosis, which is particularly important on islands.

Explanation

The passage explains that the earliest living things on the Hawaiian Islands were examples of symbiosis, a close cooperation between two or more forms of life. This relationship, known as symbiosis, is particularly important in island communities. The correct answer accurately conveys this information by stating that the first organisms on the islands worked together closely in a relationship known as symbiosis, which is particularly important on islands.

27. (2) Wildman and Niles were particularly interested in investigating the conditions under which reflection might flourish—a subject on which there is little guidance in the literature. They designed an experimental strategy for a group of teachers in Virginia and worked with 40 practicing teachers over several years. They were concerned that many would be "drawn to these new, refreshing conceptions of teaching only to find that the void between the abstractions and the realities of teacher reflection is too great to bridge. Reflection on a complex task such as teaching is not easy." The teachers were taken through a program of talking about teaching events, moving on to reflecting about specific issues in a supported, and later an independent, manner. All of the following are mentioned about the experimental strategy described in paragraph 2 EXCEPT:

It was designed so that teachers would eventually reflect without help from others.

It was used by a group of teachers over a period of years.

It involved having teachers take part in discussions of classroom events.

It involved having teachers record in writing their reflections about teaching.

The passage mentions that the teachers were taken through a program of talking about teaching events and reflecting about specific issues in a supported and later an independent manner. However, there is no mention of the teachers recording their reflections in writing. Therefore, the correct answer is "It involved having teachers record in writing their reflections about teaching."

Explanation

The passage mentions that the teachers were taken through a program of talking about teaching events and reflecting about specific issues in a supported and later an independent manner. However, there is no mention of the teachers recording their reflections in writing. Therefore, the correct answer is "It involved having teachers record in writing their reflections about teaching."

28. (6) The work of Wildman and Niles suggests the importance of recognizing some of the difficulties of instituting reflective practice. Others have noted this, making a similar point about the teaching profession's cultural inhibitions about reflective practice. Zeichner and Liston (1987) point out the inconsistency between the role of the teacher as a (reflective) professional decision maker and the more usual role of the teacher as a technician, putting into practice the ideas of others. More basic than the cultural issues is the matter of motivation. Becoming a reflective practitioner requires extra work (Jaworski,1993) and has only vaguely defined goals with, perhaps, little initially perceivable reward and the threat of vulnerability. Few have directly questioned what might lead a teacher to want to become reflective. Apparently, the most obvious reason for teachers to work toward reflective practice is that teacher educators think it is a good thing. There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect—for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit. According to paragraph 6, teachers may be discouraged from reflecting because

It is not generally supported by teacher educators

The benefits of reflection may not be apparent immediately

It is impossible to teach and reflect on one's teaching at the same time

They have often failed in their attempts to become reflective practitioners

Teachers may be discouraged from reflecting because the benefits of reflection may not be apparent immediately. The passage states that reflective practice requires extra work and has vaguely defined goals, with little initially perceivable reward. This lack of immediate benefits and the potential threat of vulnerability may deter teachers from engaging in reflective practice. The passage also mentions that there are many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect, indicating that teachers may not fully understand the value of reflection.

Explanation

Teachers may be discouraged from reflecting because the benefits of reflection may not be apparent immediately. The passage states that reflective practice requires extra work and has vaguely defined goals, with little initially perceivable reward. This lack of immediate benefits and the potential threat of vulnerability may deter teachers from engaging in reflective practice. The passage also mentions that there are many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect, indicating that teachers may not fully understand the value of reflection.

29. (3) Wildman and Niles observed that systematic reflection on teaching required a sound ability to understand classroom events in an objective manner. They describe the initial understanding in the teachers with whom they were working as being "utilitarian … and not rich or detailed enough to drive systematic reflection." Teachers rarely have the time or opportunities to view their own or the teaching of others in an objective manner. Further observation revealed the tendency of teachers to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by, in effect, standing outside thesituation. According to paragraph 3, what did the teachers working with Wildman and Niles often fall to do when they attempted to practice reflection?

Correctly calculate the amount of time needed for reflection

Provide sufficiently detailed descriptions of the methods they used to help them reflect

Examine thoughtfully the possible causes of events in their classrooms

Establish realistic goals for themselves in practicing reflection

The teachers working with Wildman and Niles often failed to examine thoughtfully the possible causes of events in their classrooms when they attempted to practice reflection. The initial understanding of the teachers was described as utilitarian and not rich or detailed enough to drive systematic reflection. They tended to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by standing outside the situation. This suggests that the teachers were not effectively analyzing and considering the possible causes of the events in their classrooms during reflection.

Explanation

The teachers working with Wildman and Niles often failed to examine thoughtfully the possible causes of events in their classrooms when they attempted to practice reflection. The initial understanding of the teachers was described as utilitarian and not rich or detailed enough to drive systematic reflection. They tended to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by standing outside the situation. This suggests that the teachers were not effectively analyzing and considering the possible causes of the events in their classrooms during reflection.

30. (5) Wildman and Niles identify three principles that facilitate reflective practice in a teaching situation. The first is support from administrators in an education system, enabling teachers to understand the requirements of reflective practice and how it relates to teaching students. The second is the availability of sufficient time and space. The teachers in the program described how they found it difficult to put aside the immediate demands of others in order to give themselves the time they needed to develop their reflective skills. The third is the development of a collaborative environment with support from other teachers. Support and encouragement were also required to help teachers in the program cope with aspects of their professional life with which they were not comfortable. Wildman and Niles make a summary comment "Perhaps the most important thing we learned is the idea of the teacher-as-reflective-practitioner will not happen simply because it is a good or even compelling idea." It can be inferred from paragraph 5 that the teachers working with Wildman and Niles held which of the following beliefs concerning reflection?

Reflection is such a good idea that it is likely to gain the support of others.

Administrators tend to be stronger supporters of reflection than teachers are.

Teachers will become more comfortable with the process of reflection if they receive help from administrators.

Teachers can afford to engage in reflection only after other needs have been met.

The teachers working with Wildman and Niles believed that they could only engage in reflection after fulfilling their immediate needs. They found it difficult to set aside the demands of others in order to give themselves the time they needed for reflective practice. This suggests that they believed reflection was a secondary priority, to be pursued only after addressing other pressing needs.

Explanation

The teachers working with Wildman and Niles believed that they could only engage in reflection after fulfilling their immediate needs. They found it difficult to set aside the demands of others in order to give themselves the time they needed for reflective practice. This suggests that they believed reflection was a secondary priority, to be pursued only after addressing other pressing needs.

H's TOEFL Ibt Reading Test (Plan B)

2.

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