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Black box testing is a type of testing where the tester does not have access to the source code of the software being tested. The tester focuses on the functionality and behavior of the system without any knowledge of its internal structure or implementation details. This approach simulates the perspective of an end user and helps identify any issues or bugs that may arise from a user's point of view.

To ensure that the same bug is not introduced again, the best approach is to write a test case for the production defect and include it in the regression suite. By doing so, the test case will be executed during future regression testing, which helps to identify if the bug resurfaces. This approach allows for proactive bug prevention and ensures that the bug is caught before it reaches the production environment again.

Unit testing is typically performed by developers. This is because unit testing involves testing individual units or components of a software application to ensure that they are functioning correctly. Developers are responsible for writing the code for these units, and they are the ones who have the knowledge and expertise to test them thoroughly. Testers, end-users, customers, and error managers may be involved in other types of testing, such as integration testing or user acceptance testing, but unit testing is primarily the responsibility of developers.

Negative testing is a type of testing that ensures that your application can gracefully handle invalid input or unexpected user behavior. This type of testing focuses on intentionally providing incorrect or unexpected inputs to the application to see how it responds. The goal is to uncover any vulnerabilities or weaknesses in the application and ensure that it can handle such scenarios without crashing or producing incorrect results. By conducting negative testing, developers can identify and fix any issues that may arise when the application is used in real-world situations.

The correct answer is "Independent testers see other and different defects and are unbiased." This is because independent testers, who are not involved in the development process, have a fresh perspective and can identify defects that developers may overlook. They bring a different set of skills and experiences to the testing process, making them more qualified to uncover a wider range of defects. Additionally, their unbiased nature ensures that they approach the testing process objectively, without any preconceived notions or biases that developers may have.

To overcome the Pesticide paradox, it is important to regularly review and update test cases. This is because the Pesticide paradox states that if the same tests are repeated over and over again, eventually they will no longer find any new bugs. By regularly reviewing and updating test cases, new test scenarios and conditions can be added, ensuring that the testing remains effective and continues to uncover bugs. This helps to prevent the Pesticide paradox and ensures that the testing process remains thorough and reliable.

In large systems, testing should be based on risk because it helps prioritize the test cases and focus on the areas of the system that are most critical or likely to have issues. By identifying and assessing the risks associated with different components or functionalities of the system, test engineers can determine which test cases are most important to execute. This approach ensures that resources are allocated efficiently and that the most critical aspects of the system are thoroughly tested, reducing the likelihood of major issues or failures in production.

The given options are all valid inputs for the text box that accepts alphabets in lower or upper case. Therefore, there is no invalid equivalence class value among the given options.

Regression testing is a type of software testing that verifies that software, which was previously developed and tested, still performs correctly after it was changed or interfaced with other software. This type of testing is important to ensure that any changes or updates to the software do not introduce new bugs or issues that could affect its functionality. By retesting the software after changes are made, regression testing helps to identify and fix any regression defects that may have occurred.

Exit criteria in software testing refers to the set of conditions or requirements that must be met in order to determine when the testing process should be considered complete and when the product is ready to be released. It helps in defining the point at which the testing activities can be concluded and the software can be deemed acceptable for release to the end-users. These criteria are typically based on factors such as test coverage, defect resolution, stability, performance, and other quality metrics, ensuring that the product meets the desired standards before it is released.

Error Guessing is a test case design technique where testers use their experience and intuition to guess potential defects that might occur in a system. They then write test cases specifically targeting these guessed defects to ensure they are adequately tested. This technique relies on the tester's knowledge and expertise to identify potential problem areas that may not be covered by other formal testing techniques. By actively guessing and targeting potential defects, testers can improve the thoroughness and effectiveness of their testing process.

Non-functional testing refers to the testing of a software system's attributes that are not related to its specific functionality. It focuses on aspects such as performance, reliability, security, and usability. Performance testing, as mentioned in the answer, is a type of non-functional testing that evaluates the system's responsiveness, scalability, and stability under varying workload conditions. It helps identify any performance bottlenecks or issues that may affect the system's efficiency. Therefore, performance testing is a valid example of non-functional testing.

Smoke testing is a type of testing that confirms the basic functionality of a product. It involves identifying the most basic test cases and executing them to ensure that the product runs without any major issues or logical errors. This type of testing is usually performed early in the development process to catch any major issues before proceeding with further testing. It does not test all functionality of the product, but rather focuses on the most critical and essential features.

As the product moves towards live use, the cost of fixing a fault increases. This is because any issues or faults discovered during the testing phase or after the product has been released can have a greater impact on the users or customers. It may require additional resources, time, and effort to fix these faults and ensure that the product is functioning properly. Therefore, it is crucial to address and resolve any faults as early as possible in the development process to minimize the cost and impact on the product.

Software testing activities should start as soon as possible in the development life cycle because it allows for early detection and resolution of defects. By starting testing early, developers can identify and fix issues before they become more complex and costly to fix. Additionally, early testing helps ensure that the software meets the requirements and specifications set out in the development process. Starting testing as soon as possible also helps to minimize the risk of delivering a faulty or unreliable product to end users.

Reviews and inspections can be considered as a part of testing because they help detect faults and improve the quality of the product. Reviews and inspections involve examining the development documentation, test plans, and other artifacts to identify any issues or potential problems. By conducting reviews and inspections, testers can catch defects and make necessary improvements before the actual testing phase begins. This ensures that the product is of higher quality and reduces the likelihood of finding issues during testing. Therefore, both reviews and inspections contribute to the testing process by helping to detect faults and enhance the overall quality of the product.

Black box testing is a method of software testing where the tester does not have knowledge of the internal workings of the software being tested. Instead, the tester focuses on validating the functionality of the software based on its specifications and requirements. This approach allows for unbiased testing and helps identify any discrepancies between the expected behavior and the actual behavior of the software. Therefore, it is true that a QA engineer is not supposed to understand the internal workings of the software when conducting black box testing.

Severity refers to the gravity or depth of a bug. It is a measure of how critical and impactful a bug is to the functioning of the application. Severity helps prioritize which bugs should be fixed first, as more severe bugs can have a greater impact on the user experience or the overall performance of the application. It is an important factor in bug tracking and helps developers and testers allocate resources appropriately to address the most critical issues.

Volume testing is a subtype of performance testing that focuses on testing the system's ability to handle a large volume of data or transactions. It aims to determine the system's performance and stability under high load conditions. By simulating a high volume of data, volume testing helps identify any bottlenecks or performance issues that may arise when the system is subjected to heavy usage. Therefore, volume testing is the correct answer as it falls under the category of performance testing.

Testers should be polite, constructive, and helpful when reporting faults to developers in order to maintain a positive and collaborative working relationship. They should also be firm about insisting that a bug is not a "feature" if it should be fixed, as this ensures that the software meets the required standards. Additionally, testers should be diplomatic and sensitive to the way developers may react to criticism, as this helps to foster a respectful and productive communication channel between the two parties. Therefore, all of the given options are correct in terms of the approach testers should take when reporting faults to developers.

All options are correct because validation activities should be conducted using a combination of methods. Hiring a third-party independent verification and validation can provide an unbiased evaluation of the process. Assigning internal staff members who are not involved in the validation and verification activities ensures a fresh perspective and reduces potential conflicts of interest. Independent evaluation, whether from external or internal sources, adds another layer of assurance to the validation process. Therefore, all these options contribute to a comprehensive and reliable validation process.

Defect clustering is a testing principle that postulates that a small number of modules contain most of the defects detected. This means that a majority of the defects in a software system are concentrated in a few specific modules. By identifying and focusing on these modules, testers can effectively allocate their resources and efforts to uncover and fix the majority of the defects. This principle helps prioritize testing activities and ensures that the most critical areas of the system are thoroughly tested, leading to a more efficient and effective testing process.

Regression testing is a type of testing that is performed to ensure that changes or modifications made to a system or software do not introduce new bugs or issues in previously working functionalities. It involves retesting previously tested functionalities to ensure that they still work as expected after the changes. Unlike the other types of testing mentioned (Integration Testing, Component Testing, Acceptance Testing, and System Testing), regression testing specifically focuses on verifying that the existing functionalities have not been affected by the changes made.

Re-testing involves running a test again to ensure that the previously identified faults or issues have been fixed. On the other hand, regression testing is performed to identify any unexpected side effects or new faults that may have been introduced as a result of changes made to the software. Therefore, the correct answer accurately explains the difference between re-testing and regression testing.

The first step in the test-driven development cycle is tests development. In test-driven development, tests are written before any code is written. This helps in defining the expected behavior and functionality of the code. By writing tests first, developers can ensure that the code meets the requirements and passes the tests. This approach also helps in identifying any potential issues or bugs early in the development process, allowing for easier debugging and maintenance.

Exhaustive testing is not possible in most cases. This is because exhaustive testing would require testing every possible input and every possible combination of inputs, which is generally not feasible due to the large number of possible inputs and combinations. Therefore, it is more practical to use techniques such as risk-based testing or prioritizing certain test cases based on their likelihood of finding defects.

Static testing is performed first in the testing process. Static testing involves reviewing and analyzing the software or code without executing it. It helps to identify defects, errors, and vulnerabilities early in the development cycle. This type of testing can include activities like code reviews, walkthroughs, inspections, and requirements analysis. By conducting static testing first, potential issues can be identified and fixed before moving on to dynamic testing, which involves executing the software and checking its behavior.

Configuration testing involves testing a program on different platforms to ensure that it functions correctly in various configurations. This type of testing is specifically focused on verifying that the program works as intended across different hardware, software, and network configurations. It helps identify any issues or incompatibilities that may arise in specific configurations and allows for necessary adjustments to be made. Therefore, configuration testing is the most suitable type of testing for the given definition.

Error guessing is best used after more formal techniques have been applied because formal techniques such as requirement analysis, specification review, and test case design techniques help in identifying and covering the majority of the expected errors and defects in the system. Once these formal techniques have been exhausted, error guessing can be used as an additional approach to uncover any remaining errors that were not identified through the formal techniques. This approach is often effective in finding unexpected and unique errors that may have been missed during the formal testing process.

Unit Testing is not a test-design technique because it is a level of testing rather than a technique for designing tests. Unit Testing is a process of testing individual units or components of a software system to ensure that they are functioning correctly. It focuses on testing the smallest units of code in isolation. On the other hand, the other options listed are all test-design techniques that help in creating effective test cases and test scenarios to ensure comprehensive testing of the software system.

Smoke testing is a type of testing that focuses on quickly checking if the basic functionalities of a software application are working correctly. It is usually performed at the early stages of the development process to identify any major issues or bugs before proceeding with more comprehensive testing. Since smoke testing is aimed at quickly verifying the stability and readiness of the application, it is most likely to be automated to save time and effort. Therefore, the correct answer is Smoke.

A high-level test case refers to a test case that focuses on the core functionality of a product, specifically standard business flows. It does not encompass all functions in the application or solely relate to the user interface (UI). Rather, it is designed to cover the essential features and processes of the product, ensuring that they are functioning correctly and meeting the required standards.

The purpose of test completion criteria in a test plan is to plan when to stop testing. It helps in defining the conditions or criteria that need to be met in order to determine that testing is complete. This ensures that testing activities are not continued indefinitely and helps in making informed decisions about when to halt testing based on predefined criteria. It helps in managing resources effectively and ensures that testing is completed within the planned timeframe.

The statement "a procedure to derive test cases based on the specifications of a component" refers to the process of designing test cases without considering the internal structure or implementation details of the component. This approach focuses solely on the inputs and outputs of the component, treating it as a black box. Therefore, the correct answer is Black Box Techniques.

The given options "Miscommunication," "Programming errors," "Change in requirements," and "Software complexity" are all possible explanations for the question "Which one do you like?" It is unclear what the question is referring to, as the options are unrelated to the question. Therefore, an explanation cannot be provided.