Chapter 18 And 19

The Encyclopedia contributed to enlightenment goals of social reform by promoting the spread of knowledge that would be used to make informed decisions about social problems. This means that the Encyclopedia provided information and resources that enabled individuals to understand and address social issues effectively. By disseminating knowledge, the Encyclopedia empowered people to take action and advocate for social change.

During the Enlightenment, intellectuals and scholars referred to themselves as "phiosopes." This term originated from the Greek word "philosophos," which means "lover of wisdom." The writers of this period were deeply interested in the pursuit of knowledge, reason, and rational thinking. They believed in questioning traditional beliefs and advocating for scientific and intellectual progress. Therefore, "phiosopes" accurately describes the self-identification of these Enlightenment writers.

The term "food riot" is somewhat misleading when applied to late eighteenth-century conflicts because it implies random destructiveness, whereas the participants were actually trying to enforce a fair price for grain or ensure supplies of it to feed their families. The term "riot" fails to capture the underlying motivations and goals of the participants, as they were not engaging in mindless violence but rather seeking to address their economic and survival needs.

Adam Smith believed that individual self-interest, including greed, ultimately contributed to the general welfare or society at large. He argued that when individuals pursue their own self-interest, it leads to competition and innovation, which in turn benefits society as a whole. However, Smith also recognized the need for a powerful and centralized government to keep this self-interest in check and prevent any negative consequences. Therefore, he believed that a balance between self-interest and government regulation was necessary for the overall well-being of society.

The correct answer suggests that Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Emile conveys the message that clerical supervision in schools hampers individual growth and independent thinking, which are crucial for preparing individuals to become part of society.

The Pugachev rebellion in Russia was the largest single rebellion during the final quarter of the eighteenth century throughout Europe. This uprising was led by Yemelyan Pugachev, a Cossack who claimed to be the rightful tsar and rallied peasants, Cossacks, and other discontented groups against the Russian government. The rebellion lasted from 1773 to 1775 and posed a significant threat to the stability of the Russian Empire. It was eventually suppressed by the government forces, but it had a lasting impact on Russian society and government policies.

The term "mestizos" refers to the children of Spanish men and Indian women. This term is commonly used to describe individuals of mixed Spanish and Indian heritage. The other options, "caballeros," "quilombos," and "oroonokos," do not accurately describe the children of Spanish men and Indian women.

John Wesley is known as the founder of the reform movement called Methodism. Methodism is a branch of Protestant Christianity that emphasizes personal piety, social justice, and the importance of small group meetings for spiritual growth. Wesley, along with his brother Charles, preached a message of salvation through faith in Jesus Christ and promoted a disciplined and methodical approach to Christian living. Methodism grew rapidly in the 18th century and continues to have a significant influence on Christianity today.

The birth and growth of European consumer society succeeded despite attacks by writers and intellectuals who claimed that humans were becoming gluttonous animals. This suggests that despite the criticisms and concerns raised by these individuals, the desire for consumer goods and the development of a consumer society prevailed. The fact that these attacks did not hinder the growth of consumerism indicates that there were other factors at play, such as the increasing availability and affordability of goods, changing social norms, and the influence of advertising and marketing.

The correct answer is "a rise in the birthrate." The question is asking for the factor that is not attributed to the population explosion in the 17th century. The other options, such as the disappearance of plague, improved agricultural techniques, and better weather conditions, are all factors that could contribute to a population increase. However, a rise in the birthrate is not mentioned as one of the factors contributing to the population explosion.

In the Treaty of Paris of 1763, France acknowledged its defeat overseas and ceded most of its territories to Great Britain. However, it did not cede some west Indian islands to Great Britain. This means that France retained control over these specific islands despite losing most of its other territories.

English Coffeehouses were important places to discuss politics and society. These establishments served as social hubs where individuals could gather to engage in intellectual discussions and exchange ideas on various topics, including politics and society. They provided a space for people from different backgrounds to come together and share their perspectives, contributing to the development of political and social discourse in England. The coffeehouses were not exclusive to aristocrats, as they attracted a diverse range of patrons who were interested in participating in these discussions.

The putting out system refers to a method of manufacturing in which raw materials were given to rural workers who would then complete the production process in their homes. This system allowed for increased production and efficiency, as it utilized the skills and labor of a larger workforce. It also helped meet the growing demand for textiles, particularly fashionable clothing, driven by the rising middle class. While the introduction of the spinning jenny and water frame also contributed to the boom in textile manufacturing, the putting out system played a crucial role in expanding production throughout Europe during the Eighteenth century.

In the eighteenth century, Enlightenment ideas spread through various means such as books, newspapers, personal correspondence, learned societies, private clubs like Masonic lodges, religious dissenters, and salons. Salons were gatherings held in the homes of wealthy women where intellectuals, artists, and philosophers would come together to discuss and exchange ideas. These salons provided a platform for the dissemination of Enlightenment ideals and played a significant role in spreading intellectual and cultural movements of the time.

The imposition of a table of ranks by Russian Tsar Peter the Great in 1722 divided the Russian nobility into different compulsory service categories, including military, administrative, and judicial. This system was implemented to regulate the competition for high office among courtiers and create a complex hierarchy within the Russian court. However, this move also had negative consequences. It upset the emerging entrepreneurial class in Russia, leading to a drain of talent to the West. Additionally, it caused tension with the leaders of the Russian Orthodox Church as it placed the Tsar above the Patriarch in both secular and religious matters.

During the Enlightenment, new ideas and philosophies were discussed and debated among the middle classes in various cities. The correct answer is Amsterdam, Paris, and London. These cities were known for their intellectual and cultural vibrancy during that time. They served as hubs for the exchange of ideas, fostering a climate of intellectual curiosity and challenging traditional beliefs. The Enlightenment ideals of reason, individualism, and progress spread outward from these cities, influencing thinkers and societies across Europe and beyond.

Colonial farmers in the Americas shipped large quantities of coffee, sugar, and tobacco to Europe as these were highly valuable and in demand. However, wool was not a major product of colonial farming as it required specialized sheep farming and was more commonly produced in regions with a colder climate. Therefore, wool was not shipped in large quantities to Europe by colonial farmers.

The correct answer is "increased the nobles power over them." This is because the statement mentions that in response to the uprising of the serfs, Empress Catherine the Great took actions that gave more power to the nobles over the serfs. This suggests that she implemented policies that further oppressed the serfs and strengthened the control of the nobility over them.

Deism is the correct answer because it refers to the belief that God created the universe to follow set, logical principles and then did not intervene in its functioning. This belief was prominent in the eighteenth century and emphasized reason and natural laws over religious doctrine. Deists believed that God was like a watchmaker who created the universe and then let it run on its own without interference. This belief was a reaction against traditional religious views and sought to reconcile faith with reason.

During the Enlightenment in the eighteenth century, writers believed that human progress was driven by the approval of God, not only in terms of faith and good works but also in scientific and technological advancements. They believed that human society was continuously advancing towards higher levels of development, largely due to the efforts of Europeans. This progress was measured by heightened levels of human activity, such as increased commerce, trade, money circulation, urbanization, and higher fertility rates. The focus was on the outcome of human actions rather than their intentions, emphasizing that progress should be judged based on what it actually achieved.

The death of Empress Elizabeth of Russia and the reversal of her anti-Prussian policy by her successor had a significant impact on the outcome of the Seven Years War. This decision allowed Frederick the Great to avoid a crushing defeat and potentially turn the tide of the war in favor of Prussia. Without this change in policy, Prussia may have suffered a major setback and the outcome of the war could have been very different.

During the Enlightenment period, intellectuals advocated for religious tolerance, promoting the idea that individuals should have the freedom to practice their own religion. However, despite this public support for religious tolerance, many intellectuals still held intolerant views towards certain religious groups. In this case, the correct answer suggests that some intellectuals were still intolerant of Jews, despite their public endorsement of religious tolerance. This contradiction highlights the complexity and inconsistency of attitudes towards religious diversity during the Enlightenment.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau published Emile in 1762, which focused on the topic of education. The book presented his theories and ideas regarding the best methods of educating individuals. Rousseau believed in the importance of nurturing a person's natural abilities and allowing them to develop freely. He emphasized the significance of hands-on learning, individualized education, and the importance of a child's natural curiosity. Rousseau's work had a significant impact on educational philosophy and contributed to the development of modern educational theories and practices.

Following the deaths of William and Mary and their successor, Anne, the English turned to the German House of Hanover for their next ruler, King George I. This choice was made because Anne's closest Protestant relatives were from the House of Hanover, and they were seen as a stable and Protestant option to secure the succession. The Austrian Habsburgs, the French Bourbons, and the Dutch House of Orange were not chosen because they either had Catholic affiliations or were not as closely related to Anne.

The correct answer is administrative and legal reforms. The "enlightenment absolutists" of Europe aimed to modernize the government and make tax increases more acceptable. They achieved this by implementing administrative and legal reforms, which likely included streamlining bureaucratic processes, improving efficiency, and ensuring fair and transparent taxation systems. These reforms would have helped to enhance the overall functioning of the government and gain the trust and support of the citizens.

Peter the Great implemented various measures to modernize and strengthen Russia, including the founding of laboratories, technical schools, and the Russian Academy of Sciences, the translation of western European classics and the introduction of Arabic numerals, and the publication of the first public newspaper. However, the emancipation of the Russian peasantry from a state of virtual slavery with the prohibition of the serf system was not one of the measures taken by Peter the Great.

The statement that is not true is "by the time the slave trade began to wind down, in the mid-nineteenth century, some five million Africans had been sold as slaves in the Americas." The Atlantic slave trade actually began to decline in the early 19th century due to the efforts of abolitionists and changing economic conditions. By the time the slave trade officially ended in the 19th century, the number of Africans sold as slaves in the Americas was much higher than five million.

During the eighteenth century, Europeans began to justify the institution of slavery by asserting that Africans were mentally and racially inferior. This belief was used as a rationale for their enslavement, as Europeans viewed African "heathens" as deserving of such treatment. This explanation aligns with the idea that the correct answer is Africans' purported mental and racial inferiority.

Prussia had the highest proportion of men at arms among the European states by 1740, with 1 out of every 28 people being soldiers. This indicates that Prussia had a strong military presence and a significant portion of its population was involved in military service.

The correct answer is the institution of the "canton system". The canton system was a military reform implemented by Prussia in the 18th century. It involved the division of the country into cantons, with each canton responsible for providing and maintaining a certain number of soldiers. This system allowed for a more efficient and organized recruitment and training process, ensuring a larger and more effective army for Prussia. By implementing the canton system, Prussia was able to transform its military into a powerful force, contributing greatly to its rise as a great power.

The correct answer is the invention of new machinery. Historians emphasize that Britain's "ag revolution" in the 1700s cannot be attributed to the invention of new machinery. This is because the agricultural revolution in Britain was primarily driven by the adoption of new farming practices such as selective breeding of animals, planting of fodder crops, and an increase in the amount of land under cultivation. While new machinery did play a role in later stages of the agricultural revolution, it was not the main factor in the initial transformation of British agriculture.

Voltaire's Letters Concerning the English Nation was published in the early 1730s and it praised the British government's tolerance and flexibility. This praise was actually a way of condemning the French government. As a result, the French government ordered Voltaire's arrest for expressing such views that criticized their own government.

The correct answer suggests that the English, Dutch, and French sailors formed their own association of pirates, particularly in the Caribbean, where they targeted ships from all nations. This would have posed a significant threat to maritime trade and security, leading the English and Dutch governments to take action against piracy.

The answer is suggesting that the Enlightenment in France differed from that in Germany because French philosophers were more aggressive in their condemnation of church and state compared to German scholars. This implies that the French Enlightenment had a stronger focus on challenging and criticizing the existing power structures, while the German Enlightenment may have been more cautious or less confrontational in this regard.

Voltaire's philosophical dictionary was primarily focused on criticizing and refuting the claims made by organized Christianity. He questioned and challenged many of the beliefs and doctrines of the Christian faith, aiming to expose what he perceived as inconsistencies, contradictions, and irrationality within the religion. Through his writings, Voltaire aimed to undermine the authority and influence of organized Christianity, advocating for reason, tolerance, and freedom of thought instead.

The correct answer is "depots de mendicite". In 1767, the French government created new workhouses called "depots de mendicite" as part of their efforts to address the rising rates of poverty, vagrancy, and crime. These workhouses were specifically designed to provide shelter and work opportunities for the poor and homeless individuals, aiming to reduce poverty and eliminate the need for begging or mendicancy.

The slave trade had a lasting impact on Europe because it permanently altered consumption patterns for ordinary people. The influx of wealth from the slave trade allowed for the expansion of consumer goods and the development of new industries. This led to a shift in the types of products that were available and affordable to the general population, changing their consumption habits and preferences. The slave trade also contributed to the growth of the middle class, who had more disposable income to spend on these new goods. Overall, the slave trade had a profound and lasting effect on the consumption patterns of ordinary Europeans.

The correct answer is the enclosure movement. Historians describe the English peasantry as "virtually disappearing" in the 18th century due to the enclosure movement. This movement involved the consolidation and privatization of common lands, which were previously used by peasants for farming and grazing. Enclosure forced many peasants off the land, as they could no longer access or afford the enclosed land. This led to the displacement of rural communities and the migration of peasants to urban areas in search of work.

In the peace of Utrect, Philip, Duke of Anjou, was recognized as the new king of Spain, but he had to renounce any future claim to the French throne and give up Spain's territories in Italy and the Netherlands. This was likely done to ensure peace and stability in Europe by preventing any potential conflicts or claims to power in the future. Additionally, it could have been a way for the other European powers to assert their dominance and limit the influence of the French monarchy.

Prussia became "the envy of Europe" in terms of its justice system after implementing extensive legal reforms. These reforms helped to modernize and improve the efficiency and fairness of the Prussian justice system, making it a model for other countries to follow.

The correct answer is "france versus britian and austria versus prussia." The Diplomatic Revolution in 1756 did result in significant changes in European alliances, but the two major rivalries between France and Britain, and Austria and Prussia, remained unchanged. France and Britain had a long history of conflicts and competition for colonial territories, while Austria and Prussia were rivals in Central Europe, vying for power and influence in the region.

Peter the Great's determination to Westernize his country led him to found new technical and scientific schools that were run by Western officials. This step was significant because it allowed for the introduction and dissemination of Western knowledge, ideas, and practices in Russia. By bringing in Western officials to run these schools, Peter aimed to modernize and improve education in his country, aligning it with the advancements made in Western Europe. This move played a crucial role in fostering scientific and technological development in Russia and promoting the exchange of ideas between Russia and the West.

George III of England is the correct answer because he was the only ruler among the options given who ended the personal aspect of serfdom. Serfdom was a system where peasants were bound to the land and were considered the property of the landowner. George III played a significant role in the abolition of serfdom in England through various legal reforms and acts. He implemented policies that granted more rights and freedom to the peasants, eventually leading to the end of serfdom in England.

The correct answer is that the removal of the threat of French invasion from the north made the colonists less dependent on British naval might and more willing to act on their grievances. This is because the colonists, having been protected by the British from French invasion, felt more secure and confident in their ability to challenge British authority. They no longer needed the British for protection and were therefore more willing to assert their own interests and push back against British policies.

The correct answer is that all of the major Baltic countries began to restrict imports of manufactured goods in order to protect their own industries. This restricted the Dutch from participating in the Baltic trade as their manufactured goods were not allowed into these countries. This restriction hindered the Dutch from maintaining their share in the Baltic trade, leading to a decline in their trade activities in the region.

In the war of the Austrian Succession, Empress Maria Theresa managed to hold on to her throne and most of her territory by conceding Silesia to Prussia. This decision disrupted the Franco-Prussian alliance, as France was an ally of Austria and Prussia. By giving up Silesia, Maria Theresa hoped to appease Prussia and prevent further territorial losses. This move allowed her to maintain her power and territory, despite the challenges she faced during the war.