Final Exam Review

Acids are defined as substances that can release hydrogen ions when dissolved in water, leading to an increase in the concentration of H+ ions in the solution.

A base is a substance that accepts hydrogen ions in aqueous solution, making it alkaline in nature. This is in contrast to acids, which release hydrogen ions, neutrals that do not react with hydrogen ions, and indicators that change color in the presence of hydrogen ions.

An ester is formed through a reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid, resulting in the formation of an ester linkage.

Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds between some carbons, which affect their structure and how tightly they can pack together in triglycerides. This unique feature distinguishes them from saturated fatty acids and plays a role in their health effects.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids are defined by having more than one double bond between carbons, distinguishing them from monounsaturated fatty acids that have only one double bond.

Starch is a complex carbohydrate composed of long chains of glucose molecules. When starch is broken down during digestion, it is converted into individual glucose molecules for energy production.

Fat is broken down into glycerol and fatty acids through a process called lipolysis.

Glucose is converted into glycogen for storage in the liver and muscles. Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood sugar levels, amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, and cholesterol is a type of lipid found in the body.

When glycerol and fatty acids are broken down, they combine to form triglycerides which are then stored in adipose tissue for future energy use.

Steroids have a distinct four-ring structure with unique side chains that differentiate them from other organic compounds.

Steroids are a specific class of organic compounds that are characterized by their four-ring carbon structure. While cholesterol and hormones are examples of steroids, vitamins, antibiotics, and NSAIDs are not considered steroids.

Phospholipids are composed of a polar head, consisting of a variable and phosphate group, which is hydrophilic, and nonpolar tails, made up of fatty acids, which are hydrophobic. This structure forms the basis of cell membranes, where the hydrophobic tails are sandwiched between hydrophilic heads, creating a bilayer structure.

Proteins are complex molecules made up of amino acid building blocks, forming long chains known as polymers.

Amino acids are unique due to the side-chains attached to the central carbon, which determine their chemical properties and functionality.

Amino acids in proteins are linked together by polypeptide bonds, which are formed during a dehydration synthesis reaction between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.

Denaturation is a process where proteins lose their biological function due to changes in conditions like heat and altered pH. It involves unfolding of the protein structure.

The primary structure of a protein refers to the linear sequence of amino acids, which determines the final shape and function of the protein. Secondary structure involves local folding patterns like beta-sheets and alpha-helices, tertiary structure refers to the overall three-dimensional shape achieved through interactions between amino acid residues, and quaternary structure involves the assembly of multiple polypeptide chains.

The secondary structure of a protein refers to the local folding patterns within a polypeptide chain, primarily determined by hydrogen bonding between amino acids. Beta-pleated sheets, alpha helices, and random coils are common motifs of secondary structure.

The tertiary structure of a protein refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of folded polypeptide chains, which determines the protein's overall shape and functionality. It is essential for the protein to carry out its biological functions effectively.

The shape of a protein plays a critical role in determining its biological function by affecting how it interacts with other molecules and carries out its specific role in the body.

Enzymes are specialized proteins that catalyze chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur. They do not serve the functions described in the incorrect answers.

Competitive inhibition occurs when a compound binds to the active site of an enzyme, reducing its activity by preventing the usual substrate from binding. This is a common mechanism used by pharmaceuticals like Lipitor to reduce enzyme activity in specific pathways.

Potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy, which is then dissipated as heat/sound. The incorrect answers do not accurately describe the energy transformation process mentioned in the question.

Thermodynamics specifically focuses on the relationship between heat and other forms of energy in a system.

Bioenergetics specifically refers to the thermodynamics of biological systems, not plant genetics, animal behavior, or geological formations.

Higher potential energy corresponds to a higher level of disorder as particles have more energy to move around and interact with each other, leading to increased randomness in the system.

Photosynthesis is a process in which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose. The correct chemical equation for photosynthesis is CO2 + H2O ? Cn(H2O)n + O2 (carbohydrate). This equation represents the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen using light energy.