Komparativ Politikk, øvelse Til Eksamen (Nørstegård)

In the United States, lobbyists can have a greater influence because political parties do not hold as much power. Unlike in the UK, where party loyalty is strong and party discipline is enforced, the US political system allows for more independent decision-making by individual legislators. This creates opportunities for lobbyists to sway individual politicians and shape policy outcomes. Additionally, the US has a more decentralized political structure, with power spread across different levels of government, which further allows lobbyists to exert influence at various levels.

The UK has unwritten constitutional laws. Unlike countries with written constitutions, the UK's constitution is a combination of statutes, court decisions, and conventions. This means that certain constitutional principles and practices are not explicitly written down but are instead based on historical precedent and tradition. These unwritten grunnlover include the principle of parliamentary sovereignty, the rule of law, and the independence of the judiciary.

The given answer states that "Alle demokratier har grunnlover" which translates to "All democracies have constitutions." This suggests that in order for a country to be considered a democracy, it must have a constitution. This aligns with the understanding that constitutions outline the fundamental principles and laws of a nation, providing a framework for governance and protecting the rights of its citizens. Therefore, it can be inferred that the presence of a constitution is a characteristic of democratic systems.

Deduktiv metode innebærer å avlede hypoteser fra teori. Dette betyr at man tar utgangspunkt i etablert teori eller kunnskap og bruker logiske resonnementer for å trekke konklusjoner eller formulere hypoteser. Det er en prosess der man går fra det generelle til det spesifikke. Ved å bruke deduktiv metode kan man teste og bekrefte eller avkrefte teorier ved å se om hypotesene som er avledet fra teorien er gyldige eller ikke.

Charles Tilly is the correct answer because he is well-known for his theory that war is a crucial factor in the development of the modern state. According to Tilly, war creates the need for states to centralize power and resources in order to effectively wage war, leading to the formation and consolidation of states. In turn, states use their power to wage war and expand their territories. Tilly's theory emphasizes the interconnectedness of war and state-building, highlighting the role of violence and coercion in shaping political systems.

The correct answer states that one can generalize by using scientific research methods. This implies that through the use of scientific research methods, it is possible to draw general conclusions and make generalizations about the study of politics. This suggests that studying politics in a scientific manner involves the application of systematic and rigorous research methods to gather data, analyze it, and draw meaningful conclusions that can be generalized to a larger population or context.

The correct answer is Østerud because the given definition of democracy matches Østerud's description, which emphasizes broad participation, universal and equal suffrage, and the existence of political rights that allow for opposition and competition between organized alternatives. Sodaro's definition, on the other hand, focuses on core values such as rule of law, popular sovereignty, guaranteed rights and freedoms, and economic prosperity for the population.

John Locke believed that it was necessary to have a "social contract" but also advocated for a form of freedom regulated by law. He believed that individuals should have certain natural rights, such as life, liberty, and property, and that the government's role was to protect these rights. Locke argued that if a government failed to protect the rights of its citizens, the people had the right to rebel against it. In contrast, Thomas Hobbes believed in a strong central authority with absolute power, where individuals would willingly give up their rights for security and order.

John Locke is attributed with the quote "Where there is no law, there is no freedom." This quote reflects Locke's belief in the importance of a structured legal system in order to protect individual rights and freedoms. Locke argued that without laws and a government to enforce them, individuals would be subjected to chaos and the violation of their rights. He believed that the rule of law was essential for maintaining a society where individuals could exercise their freedoms without fear of harm or oppression.

The components of an ideology include criticism of the existing system, a vision for a future society, and a theory on how change should occur. These components are essential in shaping an ideology as they provide a framework for identifying flaws in the current system, envisioning a better future, and outlining the strategies and methods to bring about the desired change. Additionally, the involvement of individuals who must contribute to the ideology is also a crucial aspect, as it emphasizes the collective effort required to implement the ideology effectively.

India and Botswana are examples of countries where relatively stable democracies have been established despite significant poverty. Both countries have a history of democratic governance and have managed to maintain political stability despite economic challenges.

Heywood's definition of ideology is "An all-embracing political doctrine that claims monopoly of the truth." This means that according to Heywood, ideology is a comprehensive political belief system that asserts its own truth and seeks to dominate other perspectives. It suggests that ideologies are not just individual beliefs, but rather encompass a wide range of ideas and values that shape political thought and action. This definition emphasizes the power and dominance that ideologies can have in shaping societies and influencing political behavior.

The correct answer for this question is a combination of statements that describe Møller's requirements for control logic. According to the given options, Møller's requirements for control logic include the need for a theoretical and empirical relationship between cause and effect, the cause must precede the effect in time, the control must account for other causes, and there must be a statistical relationship between cause and effect. These requirements ensure that the control logic is based on sound theoretical and empirical evidence, considers the temporal sequence of events, accounts for alternative explanations, and relies on statistical analysis.

The correct answer includes three characteristics of control logic. Firstly, it involves creating causal links between independent and dependent variables. Secondly, it is necessary to establish causality. Lastly, control logic involves keeping background variables constant while varying the independent variable. The answer also mentions that the concept of control logic is referred to by Møller.

In a parliamentary democracy, the government or president is elected through the parliament, which means that the answer "Regjeringen/Presidenten kommer via parlamentet" is correct. Additionally, in a parliamentary democracy, the executive and legislative branches of government are more interdependent, meaning that they rely on each other for the functioning of the government. Therefore, the answer "Utøvende og Lovgivende makt mer avhengige av hverandre" is also correct.

Sidney Verba's definition of political culture states that it consists of the system of empirical beliefs, expressive symbols, and values that define the situation in which political action takes place. This definition emphasizes the importance of the beliefs and values held by individuals in a society, as well as the symbols and expressions they use to communicate and engage in political activities. It suggests that political culture shapes and influences political behavior and actions within a society.

Charles de Montesquieu wrote "The Spirit of the Laws". This book was published in 1748 and is considered one of the most influential works in the field of political science. Montesquieu's book discusses the separation of powers and the importance of checks and balances in a government system. His ideas greatly influenced the development of modern democratic systems and the concept of the rule of law.

Charles Tilly's work suggests that war plays a crucial role in the development of the state. He argues that war necessitates the creation of a bureaucratic structure to organize armies, leading to the formation of a centralized state. Additionally, Tilly suggests that where there is a significant amount of capital, the state aligns itself with merchants and uses coercion in areas with less capital. This implies that the state's alliances and use of force are influenced by economic factors.

According to Sodaro, the core values of democracy include democratic values, rule of law, popular sovereignty, rights and liberties, and economic prosperity. These values emphasize the importance of democratic principles, ensuring that the government is accountable to the people, and protecting individual rights and freedoms. Additionally, economic prosperity is seen as essential for a functioning democracy.

The advantages of proportional representation over pluralistic representation include:
1) Smaller parties are heard, meaning that their voices and perspectives are not marginalized.
2) No votes are wasted, as every vote counts towards the overall representation.
3) The number of votes better corresponds to the support of the people, ensuring a more accurate reflection of public opinion.
4) Typically, there is higher voter turnout because individuals feel that their votes matter more.
5) There is no need to change electoral districts to achieve relative equality in size.
6) In a list system, individual representatives do not need to spend money on personal campaigns.

The correct answer is Norge, Frankrike, USA. In these countries, the elite class actively participated in the writing of the constitutions/rights, which facilitated the process of democratization. Their collaboration ensured that the interests and perspectives of different social groups were represented in the constitution-making process, leading to a smoother transition towards democracy.

John Locke, Jean J. Rousseau, Thomas Hobbes, and Niccoló Machiavelli were all involved in developing the concept of the social contract. Each of these philosophers contributed to the understanding of how individuals enter into a mutual agreement with the government or society to maintain order and protect their rights. Locke emphasized the importance of individual rights and limited government, Rousseau focused on the general will of the people, Hobbes argued for a strong central authority to prevent chaos, and Machiavelli explored the relationship between power and governance. Together, their ideas shaped the concept of the social contract and influenced political thought.

James Madison is the correct answer because he is the one who made the statement, "If men were angels, no government would be necessary. You must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself." This quote reflects Madison's belief in the need for a government to both govern the people and have checks and balances to prevent abuse of power.

According to Heywood, the core values of Fascism include anti-rationalism, the belief that emotions and instincts are more important than reason; "struggle" or social Darwinism, the idea that society should be based on competition and survival of the fittest; leadership and elitism, the belief in the superiority of a select few; socialism, the idea of collective welfare and state control; and nationalism, the belief in the superiority of one's own nation.

Rokkan and Lipset focus on multiple political divisions, including the left-right divide (Høyre-Venstre), the center-periphery divide (Senter-Periferi), the state-church divide (Stat-Kirke), the rural-urban divide (Rural-Urban), and the worker-employer divide (Arbeidstaker-Arbeidsgiver). These divisions highlight different aspects of political and social tensions, such as economic ideologies, regional disparities, the role of religion in governance, geographic differences, and labor relations. They also touch on the traditional-modern divide (Tradisjon-Forandring) and gender and age divides (Kvinner-Menn, Unge-Gamle), although these are not explicitly mentioned in the answer.

The ideologies of socialism/communism and fascism are reactions to liberalism because they prioritize the collective or community over the individual. Socialism/communism advocates for the collective ownership and control of resources and means of production, aiming to create a more equal society. Fascism, on the other hand, promotes a totalitarian system where the state has complete control over individuals and their actions, prioritizing the interests of the nation over individual rights and freedoms. Both of these ideologies challenge the liberal notion of individualism and emphasize the importance of the collective.

According to S. Huntington, in a revolution, dominant values and "myths," political institutions, social structure, and leadership are all changed. This means that the beliefs and narratives that hold society together are challenged and transformed, the established political systems and organizations are overthrown or restructured, the social hierarchy and relationships are disrupted, and new leaders emerge or take power. This perspective differs from the Marxist perspective, which focuses on the ruling class as the driving force of change in a revolution.

The question asks for which of these options are considered as an "Upper House". An Upper House typically refers to a legislative body that represents the federal or regional level of government and has powers to review and revise legislation proposed by the lower house. The correct answer options that fit this description are Senat, Bundesrat, Council of States (India), House of Councilors (Japan), House of Lords, and Odelstinget.

The correct answer states that the tokammersystem (two-chamber system) led to constitutionalism and the trekammersystem (three-chamber system) led to autocracy. It also mentions that the tokammersystem was influenced by Roman practices, while the trekammersystem was created from scratch. Additionally, it states that in areas with intense military competition, a "patrimonialistisk forvaltning" (patrimonial administration) was developed early on, while bureaucracy was introduced later.

The correct answer is Belgium, the Netherlands, India, and Switzerland. These countries are examples of consociational democracies, which are characterized by power-sharing arrangements between different ethnic or religious groups. In consociational democracies, minority groups are given a significant role in decision-making processes to ensure their representation and prevent conflicts. These countries have implemented various mechanisms such as proportional representation, coalition governments, and special rights or privileges for minority groups to maintain stability and inclusivity in their democratic systems.

The correct answer includes multiple statements about Barrington Moore and his contributions to political science. It states that there is a broad consensus that Moore's explanations are not particularly convincing. It also mentions that Moore attempted to understand why democracy emerged in some places and dictatorship in others. He defined democracy as constitutionalism rather than popular rule and argued that the middle class is necessary for democracy. Additionally, he believed that large landowners are the main enemy of democracy and that violent revolutions are necessary for the emergence of democracy. However, the answer also notes that Moore's ideas have inspired many but have been criticized by Marxists.

Perry Anderson's works have been criticized by Møller for treating large areas as homogeneous groups. Additionally, Vest-Europe was bound together by the papal state, which made the local lord/king less powerful compared to their counterparts in Eastern Europe. The city-states contributed to the development of capitalism and democracy. Japan's lack of feudalism hindered the emergence of capitalism, and Vest-Europe better preserved the Greco-Roman intellectual tradition compared to Eastern Europe.

The given answer states that Theda Skocpol's works were inspired by Barrington Moore. According to Skocpol, for a revolution to occur, a country needs to have a traditional state apparatus (non-industrialized/commercialized), be developmentally backward, have partially weak state apparatuses, and have a national uprising rather than a local one. Additionally, Skocpol argues that a revolution leads to a strengthening of the state.

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The answer includes a list of values that Sodero considers as the "Spirit of Democracy". These values include freedom, inclusion, equality, equity, tolerance, welfare, cooperation, and peaceful resolution of conflict. These values are often associated with democratic societies and are essential for promoting a fair and just society where everyone's rights and voices are respected. Additionally, these values contribute to the overall well-being and harmony of a democratic society.

The correct answer includes a combination of factors that are necessary for the emergence and sustainability of a democracy. These factors include the willingness of the people to have democracy, the presence of strong institutions, national unity, national wealth, a thriving private sector, a middle class, support from marginalized groups, participation, a democratic political culture, education, free access to information, and favorable international conditions. These factors collectively contribute to the establishment and maintenance of a democratic system.