Human Anatomy &physiology Chapter 8

Extension is a type of angular movement that occurs along the sagittal plane. It involves increasing the angle of the joint, which means moving the body part further away from the midline of the body or straightening it. This movement is commonly seen in activities such as straightening the arm or leg, straightening the spine, or opening the mouth.

Adduction is the movement that occurs along the frontal plane towards the midline of the body. It involves bringing a body part closer to the midline, such as bringing the arms or legs closer to the body. This movement is important for maintaining balance and stability, as well as for various activities that require bringing body parts closer together.

Retraction refers to the posterior movement in a transverse plane. This means that when an object or body part moves backwards or away from the midline of the body, it is considered retraction.

Depression is the correct answer because it refers to the movement of a body part inferiorly, or downwards. This movement involves lowering or moving a body part in the direction of the feet.

Synovial fluid is a viscous slippery filtrate of plasma that contains hyaluronic acid. It serves the purpose of lubricating and nourishing articular cartilage. This fluid is found in the synovial joints, such as the knee and shoulder joints, and helps reduce friction between the bones during movement.

Inversion refers to the movement of the foot where the sole is turned medially. This means that the inner edge of the foot is elevated while the outer edge is lowered. This movement is commonly seen when someone is standing on the outer edge of their foot or when they are tilting their foot inward. Inversion is an important movement that helps with balance and stability during activities such as walking or running.

Eversion refers to the movement of the foot where the sole is turned laterally. This means that the inner edge of the foot is lifted while the outer edge is lowered. Eversion is the opposite of inversion, which is the movement where the sole is turned medially.

Hyperextension refers to excessive extension beyond the normal range of motion. In the context of angular movements, it specifically pertains to movements occurring along the sagittal plane. This means that hyperextension involves the backward bending or straightening of a joint beyond its normal anatomical position. It is important to note that hyperextension can be detrimental and may lead to injury if it exceeds the normal range of motion.

Flexion is a type of angular movement that occurs along the sagittal plane. It involves decreasing the angle of a joint. During flexion, the bones forming the joint move closer together, bringing body parts closer to each other or towards the body. This movement is commonly seen in activities such as bending the elbow, knee, or neck.

Elevation refers to the movement of lifting a body part superiorly, meaning towards the upper part of the body. This movement is commonly observed in actions such as shrugging the shoulders or lifting the chin upwards.

Muscle contraction causes the insertion to move toward the origin because when a muscle contracts, it shortens in length. The insertion point of a muscle is the end that moves when the muscle contracts, while the origin point is the end that remains fixed. Therefore, as the muscle contracts, the insertion point moves closer to the origin point. This is a fundamental principle in anatomy and physiology, and it is true for most muscles in the body.

Bursitis is an inflammation of a bursa, which is a small fluid-filled sac that cushions and lubricates joints. It is commonly caused by a blow or friction, such as repetitive movements or pressure on the affected area. Rest and ice are often recommended to reduce swelling and pain. In more severe cases, anti-inflammatory drugs may be prescribed to alleviate symptoms. Bursitis can occur in various joints, including the shoulder, elbow, hip, and knee.

Abduction is the correct answer because it refers to the movement away from the midline of the body along the frontal plane. In this movement, a body part or limb is moved away from the center of the body, such as when lifting the arm sideways or spreading the legs apart. This movement is important for various activities like stretching, balancing, and performing exercises that involve lateral movements.

Dorsiflexion refers to the upward movement of the foot. This movement involves flexing the foot at the ankle joint, bringing the top of the foot closer to the shin. Dorsiflexion is important for activities such as walking, running, and jumping, as it allows for the lifting of the foot off the ground and the clearance of obstacles.

Supination refers to the movement of the forearm where the radius and ulna bones are parallel to each other. This movement occurs when the hand is turned backward, allowing the palm to face upward or anteriorly. During supination, the radius rotates around the ulna, resulting in the parallel alignment of the two bones. This movement is important for various activities such as holding a cup or turning a doorknob.

Circumduction is the movement that occurs along the frontal plane and involves flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction of a limb. This movement allows the limb to describe a cone shape in space. In circumduction, the limb moves in a circular or conical pattern, with the distal end of the limb tracing a circle while the proximal end remains fixed. This movement is commonly seen in ball-and-socket joints like the shoulder and hip, allowing for a wide range of motion in multiple directions.

Rotation refers to the turning of a bone around its own long axis. This movement can be seen between the C1 and C2 vertebrae in the neck, where the head rotates from side to side. It can also be observed in the rotation of the humerus and femur, where the upper arm and thigh bone rotate internally or externally.

Arthritis is the correct answer because it is a general term used to describe over 100 different types of inflammatory or degenerative diseases that damage joints. It is the most widespread crippling disease in the U.S. and is characterized by symptoms such as pain, stiffness, and swelling of a joint. There are acute forms of arthritis that are caused by bacteria and can be treated with antibiotics, as well as chronic forms such as osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and gouty arthritis.

Osteoarthritis is a common, irreversible, degenerative form of arthritis that is often referred to as "wear-and-tear" arthritis. It is characterized by the breakdown of cartilage in the joints, leading to pain, stiffness, and reduced mobility. It is estimated that 85% of all Americans will develop osteoarthritis at some point in their lives, with a higher prevalence in women than men. While the exact cause of osteoarthritis is unknown, it is believed to be related to the normal aging process.

Tendonitis is the correct answer because it is the inflammation of tendon sheaths, which is typically caused by overuse. The symptoms and treatment for tendonitis are similar to bursitis.

The correct answer is "Hinge Joints, Hinge Joint." Hinge joints are a type of joint that allow motion along a single plane, specifically flexion and extension. This type of joint is similar to a hinge on a door, allowing movement in only one direction. Therefore, the answer "Hinge Joints, Hinge Joint" accurately describes the characteristics and function of this type of joint.

Saddle joints, also known as saddle joint, have articular surfaces that are both concave and convex, allowing for a greater range of movement compared to condyloid joints. The biaxial nature of saddle joints enables movement in two planes, making them highly flexible and adaptable.

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic, inflammatory, autoimmune disease of unknown cause. It typically develops between the ages of 40 and 50, but can occur at any age and affects three times as many women as men. The disease is characterized by joint pain and swelling, usually affecting both sides of the body. Other symptoms include anemia, osteoporosis, muscle weakness, and cardiovascular problems.

The correct answer is "Diarthroses". Diarthroses are joints that are freely movable. This classification is based on the amount of movement allowed by the joint.

Gouty arthritis is a condition characterized by the deposition of uric acid crystals in joints and soft tissues, leading to inflammation. It is more common in men and typically affects the joint at the base of the great toe. If left untreated, gouty arthritis can cause the bone ends to fuse, resulting in joint immobility. The treatment for gouty arthritis involves the use of drugs, increasing water intake, and avoiding alcohol.

Lyme disease is caused by bacteria transmitted through tick bites. It is characterized by symptoms such as a skin rash, flu-like symptoms, and cognitive difficulties. If left untreated, it can lead to joint pain and arthritis. The recommended treatment for Lyme disease is antibiotics.

A gomphosis is a type of fibrous joint where a peg-like structure, such as a tooth, is held in a socket by the periodontal ligament. This type of joint provides stability and allows for limited movement. The given statement describes a fibrous joint where the tooth is held in its socket by the periodontal ligament, which is characteristic of a gomphosis joint.

A tendon sheath is a protective covering that completely surrounds a tendon. It is elongated in shape and provides support and lubrication to the tendon, allowing it to move smoothly within the sheath. This structure helps to reduce friction and prevent damage to the tendon during movement.

Plantar flexion refers to the downward movement of the foot. This movement occurs when the foot is flexed or pointed downwards, as if standing on tiptoes. The correct answer, "Plantar flexion," accurately describes this movement and aligns with the given information.

Protraction refers to the movement in a transverse plane where a body part moves forward or away from the midline of the body. This movement is commonly seen in the shoulders and jaw, where the body part moves forward in relation to the rest of the body. Protraction is the opposite of retraction, where the body part moves backward or towards the midline.

Bursae are flattened, fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes that contain synovial fluid. They commonly act as "ball bearings" where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together. Bursae help reduce friction and provide cushioning in joints, allowing smooth movement and preventing damage to surrounding tissues.

The wrists move in a gliding movement. This type of movement allows the bones in the wrist to glide smoothly against each other, allowing for flexibility and range of motion. Gliding movements occur when two flat surfaces of bones slide past each other, such as when the hand moves side to side or up and down. This type of movement is important for tasks that require dexterity and precision, such as writing, typing, and playing musical instruments.

This explanation describes the progression of Rheumatoid Arthritis. It starts with synovitis, which is inflammation of the synovial membrane in the affected joint. Inflammatory blood cells then migrate to the joint and release inflammatory chemicals, further contributing to the inflammation. The inflamed synovial membrane thickens and forms a pannus, which can erode the cartilage. As a result, scar tissue forms and the articulating bone ends connect, leading to ankylosis. Overall, this explanation outlines the key pathological changes that occur in Rheumatoid Arthritis.

The term "articulation" refers to the site where two or more bones meet. It is commonly used to describe the connection between bones in the human body, such as in joints. Articulations allow for movement and flexibility, enabling various body parts to function together.

Amphiarthroses is the correct answer because it refers to joints that are slightly immovable. This classification is based on the amount of movement allowed by the joint.

A suture is a type of joint found only in the skull where the bone edges interlock and are held together with very short, interconnecting fibers. This allows for minimal movement and provides stability to the skull. Sutures are important for protecting the brain and maintaining the shape and structure of the skull.

Synovial joints are the most common type of joints in the body and are classified as diarthrotic joints, meaning they allow for free movement. These joints are found in the limbs and most other parts of the body, allowing for a wide range of motion. Therefore, the statement provided in the answer is accurate as it correctly describes synovial joints.

The articular capsule, also known as the joint capsule, consists of two layers. The outer layer is made up of dense irregular connective tissue, which provides strength and stability to the joint. The inner layer is the synovial membrane, which is composed of loose connective tissue. The synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid, which lubricates the joint and reduces friction between the bones. Together, the outer fibrous capsule and inner synovial membrane make up the articular capsule or joint capsule.

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Synarthroses is the correct answer because it refers to joints that are immovable. The question is asking for the functional classification of joints based on the amount of movement allowed, and synarthroses fits this description as it denotes immobility.

The given statement "Origin - attachment to the movable bone" is incorrect. The origin refers to the point of attachment of a muscle that remains fixed during contraction, while the insertion is the point of attachment that moves towards the origin during contraction. Therefore, the correct answer is False.

The given correct answer is "Symphyses". Symphyses are a type of joint where bones are united by fibrocartilage. This type of joint allows for limited movement and provides strength and flexibility. In this case, the hyaline cartilage covers the articulating surfaces and is fused to an intervening pad of fibrocartilage, which is characteristic of symphyses joints.

A synchondrosis is a type of joint where the bones are connected by a bar or plate of hyaline cartilage. This type of joint allows for very little movement, if any at all. In synchondroses, the hyaline cartilage acts as a bridge between the bones, providing stability and support. This type of joint is commonly found in the growth plates of long bones in children, as well as in other areas of the body such as the sternum and the ribs.

A syndesmosis is a type of joint where the bones are held together by a ligament. Fibrous tissue, which makes up the ligament, can vary in length and is longer than in sutures. Therefore, the correct answer is syndesmosis.

The given statement is false. Insertion refers to the attachment of a muscle to a movable bone, not an immovable bone. When a muscle contracts, it pulls on the movable bone, causing movement at the joint. Therefore, the correct answer is false.

The given answer "Plane Joint, Plane Joints" is correct because plane joints, also known as gliding joints, are nonaxial joints that have flat articular surfaces. These joints allow for short gliding movements between bones, such as the movement between the carpals in the wrist or the tarsals in the foot.

The answer is "Cartilaginous Fibrous Synovial" because these are the three structural classifications of joints based on the material binding bones together and whether or not a joint cavity is present. Cartilaginous joints are held together by cartilage, fibrous joints are held together by fibrous connective tissue, and synovial joints have a joint cavity and are surrounded by a synovial membrane.

Osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease characterized by the destruction of cartilage in the joints. In this condition, more cartilage is destroyed than replaced in badly aligned or overworked joints. This leads to exposed bone ends thickening, enlarging, forming bone spurs, and restricting movement. The suggested treatment for osteoarthritis includes moderate activity, mild pain relievers, capsaicin creams, glucosamine, and chondroitin sulfate.

The treatment options for rheumatoid arthritis include conservative therapy, progressive treatment, and new biological response modifier drugs. Conservative therapy involves the use of aspirin, long-term antibiotics, and physical therapy. This approach aims to manage symptoms and improve joint function. Progressive treatment involves the use of anti-inflammatory drugs or immunosuppressants to reduce inflammation and slow down the progression of the disease. Lastly, new biological response modifier drugs work by neutralizing inflammatory chemicals in the body. These drugs are a newer and more targeted approach to treating rheumatoid arthritis.

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