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Ştefan Odobleja was a Romanian scientist and philosopher who is considered a precursor to cybernetics. He developed the concept of "psychology of reflexes" in the 1930s, which laid the groundwork for the study of feedback mechanisms and control systems. Odobleja's ideas were ahead of his time and anticipated many concepts that would later become central to cybernetics, such as information theory and the study of complex systems. His work influenced later cybernetics pioneers like Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby.

Walter Bradford Cannon, în cartea sa "The Wisdom of the Body", introduce în ştiinţă conceptul de homeostază. Homeostază se referă la capacitatea organismului de a menţine un mediu intern stabil şi constant, în ciuda schimbărilor din mediul extern. Acest concept este esenţial pentru funcţionarea normală a organismului, deoarece asigură echilibrul şi reglarea diferitelor procese fiziologice. Prin menţinerea homeostazei, organismul poate răspunde şi se poate adapta la schimbările din mediul înconjurător, asigurând astfel supravieţuirea şi funcţionarea optimă.

The principle of inverse connection states that in a cybernetic system, the feedback connections are usually opposite to the connections in the forward path. This means that the information that is fed back to the system is used to modify and regulate its behavior in order to achieve a desired outcome. This principle is essential in maintaining stability and control in cybernetic systems.

The correct answer is c. "Behaviour, purpose, and teleology". This work is attributed to Norbert Wiener, Arturo Rosenblueth, and Julian Bigelow. This work explores the concepts of behavior, purpose, and teleology in relation to cybernetics and systems theory. Norbert Wiener, Arturo Rosenblueth, and Julian Bigelow were all influential figures in the field of cybernetics and made significant contributions to its development.

The term "teleologic" refers to the study of purpose or goals in nature. "Feedback" is a concept that involves receiving information about the output or result of a process, and using that information to make adjustments or improvements. Both "teleologic" and "feedback" are related to the idea of purpose or goal-directed behavior, making them synonymous in this context. The other options, homeostasis, emergence, and evolution, are not directly related to the concept of purpose or goals in the same way as "teleologic" and "feedback".

The correct answer is option a. "Artificial life" and it examines systems in interaction with life, using methods such as simulation, computer modeling, robotics, and biochemistry. This option accurately describes the concept of "A-Life" which is the study of life-like processes and systems that are artificially created or simulated. It involves analyzing and understanding the behavior and dynamics of these artificial life forms using various scientific methods and technologies.

According to Peter Senge, "complexity of dynamics" is not encountered when the same action has similar effects in both the short term and the long term. This means that there is a predictability and consistency in the outcomes of the action over time, without any unexpected or surprising consequences.

Stuart Kauffman introduced the concept of "fitness landscape." A fitness landscape refers to the visual representation of the relationship between genotypes and their corresponding fitness levels in a given population. It helps in understanding how different genotypes evolve and adapt to their environment. Kauffman's work on fitness landscapes has been influential in the field of evolutionary biology and complex systems.

John H. Holland is the author of the software model ECHO, which illustrates how a complex organization emerges.

The correct answer is a. sistemul adaptiv complex. Cybernetics is the study of complex adaptive systems, which are systems that can self-regulate and adapt to their environment. These systems are characterized by feedback loops, where information is constantly exchanged between the system and its environment. The study of cybernetics involves understanding how these systems function, how they evolve and co-evolve with their environment, and how emergent properties arise from their interactions.

The correct answer is a. aceeaşi acţiune are efecte diferite pe termen lung şi pe termen scurt. This means that the same action can have different effects in the short term compared to the long term. This highlights the complexity of dynamic systems, where the outcomes are not always predictable or consistent over time. It emphasizes the importance of considering both short-term and long-term effects when analyzing and understanding dynamic systems.

The correct answer is a. Sensitivitatea la condiţiile iniţiale, mişcarea aripilor unui fluture poate declanşa o tornadă. This is known as the Butterfly Effect, which refers to the idea that small changes in initial conditions can lead to large and unpredictable outcomes in complex systems. The concept was first discovered by Edward Lorenz, who found that the flapping of a butterfly's wings in one part of the world could potentially set off a chain of events that ultimately leads to the formation of a tornado in another part of the world. This highlights the sensitivity and interconnectedness of natural systems.

The correct answer is a. Cibernetica de ordinul unu: inginerească, de ordinul doi: biologică+evoluţionistă, de ordinul trei: socială. This answer suggests that the first order of cybernetics is engineering, the second order is biological+evolutionary, and the third order is social. This categorization implies that cybernetics can be applied to different fields and levels, starting from engineering and progressing to more complex and interconnected systems in biology and society.

The correct answer is c. Paris. Stefan Odobleja's work "Psihologia Consonantistă" was published in Paris in 1938.

Norbert Wiener was originally of Jewish descent.

In the dialogue "Alcibiades," Plato uses the term "kybernetykes" in a way that is closest to the modern content of cybernetics.

The term "sistem" in cybernetics originates from Latin. Latin is considered the fundamental language in many scientific fields, including cybernetics. Latin terms and concepts have been widely adopted and used in various scientific disciplines, and cybernetics is no exception. The use of Latin in cybernetics helps to ensure consistency and clarity in communication within the field. Latin's influence on cybernetics reflects its historical significance and its ongoing relevance in scientific discourse.

Ludwig von Bertalanffy was compared to Cristofor Columb for his discoveries in the field of systems. This comparison suggests that Bertalanffy's discoveries were groundbreaking and had a significant impact, similar to how Cristofor Columb's discovery of the Americas had a profound effect on world history. The comparison implies that Bertalanffy's contributions to the field of systems were noteworthy and influential.

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Norbert Wiener, Arturo Rosenblueth, and Julian Bigelow were the researchers who first extended the mechanisms of feedback regulation to living beings and machines.

The correct answer is c. Precursori, Întemeietori, Pionieri, Inovatori, Cibernetica de ordin III şi ştiinţele complexităţii. This answer correctly lists the chronological order of the periods in the emergence and development of cybernetics. It starts with the Precursors, who laid the groundwork for cybernetics, followed by the Întemeietori (Founders) who established the principles and concepts of cybernetics. Then, the Pionieri (Pioneers) further advanced the field, followed by the Inovatori (Innovators) who introduced new ideas and technologies. Finally, it includes Cibernetica de ordin III şi ştiinţele complexităţii (Cybernetics of the third order and the sciences of complexity), which represents the latest developments in the field.

William Ross Ashby developed the role of information in cybernetic systems and how it determines the efficiency of regulation and control processes in his fundamental work "An Introduction to Cybernetics".

The black box method refers to the analysis of inputs and outputs of a system without considering its internal structure. This means that the focus is solely on understanding how the system functions based on the observed inputs and outputs, without any knowledge or consideration of its internal workings. This approach is useful when the internal structure of the system is complex or unknown, allowing for a simplified understanding of its behavior.

John von Neumann created a cybernetic device called the cellular automaton.

In the context of cybernetics of the second order, the system is considered capable of interacting with the observer. This means that the system can receive information from the observer and respond accordingly, allowing for a dynamic exchange of information between the system and the observer. This interaction is an important aspect of cybernetics as it allows for feedback and adjustment in order to achieve the desired goals.

Euler is considered to be the founder of the theory of graphs. He made significant contributions to the study of graphs, including the concept of Eulerian paths and circuits, which are fundamental concepts in graph theory. His work laid the foundation for the development of graph theory as a branch of mathematics, which has applications in various fields such as computer science, operations research, and social network analysis.

Umberto Maturana has never won the Nobel Prize.

Murray Gell-Man, Phillip Anderson, Keyneth Arrow, Ilya Prigogine, and Thomas Schelling have something in common because they have all won the Nobel Prize.

Norbert Wiener a intuit că bucla feedback din sistemele cibernetice transmite în esenţă informaţie. Feedback-ul într-un sistem cibernetic este procesul prin care informaţia este colectată, analizată şi transmisă înapoi în sistem pentru a influenţa şi regla comportamentul acestuia. Wiener a observat că acest proces de transmitere a informaţiei prin bucla feedback este esenţial pentru funcţionarea şi adaptabilitatea sistemelor cibernetice.

Kenteth Boulding is recognized as the first economist to understand the interdependence between the economic system and the ecological system. This means that he was the first economist to recognize and study the relationship between the economy and the environment, understanding that the two are interconnected and that actions in one system can have consequences in the other. This insight is important in understanding the impact of economic activities on the environment and the need for sustainable development.

J. von Neumann a contribuit la toate cele trei domenii menționate: teoria jocurilor, programarea matematică și știința calculatoarelor. El a fost unul dintre pionierii teoriei jocurilor, dezvoltând concepte și metode matematice pentru analiza strategică a jocurilor. De asemenea, von Neumann a fost un pionier în programarea matematică, contribuind la dezvoltarea algoritmilor și a metodelor de rezolvare a problemelor matematice complexe. În plus, el a avut un rol fundamental în dezvoltarea primului calculator electronic digital, fiind considerat unul dintre fondatorii științei calculatoarelor. Prin urmare, răspunsul corect este "d. Toate cele de mai sus".

Herbert A Simon, laureate of the Nobel Prize in Economics, made a decisive contribution to the emergence of complexity sciences. These sciences study complex systems and aim to understand their behavior and dynamics. Simon's work, particularly in the field of decision-making and organizational behavior, laid the foundation for the development of complexity sciences. His research emphasized the importance of considering multiple factors and interdependencies in analyzing complex systems, which has had a significant impact on various fields such as economics, sociology, and management.

Norbert Wiener's focus during World War II was on perfecting automatic aiming devices for anti-aircraft guns. This indicates that his main concern was improving the accuracy and effectiveness of these weapons in combat situations.

The correct answer is a. Recurenţă, modificare, emergenţă, distanţă între nivele. The theory of stratification is based on the axioms of recurrence, modification, emergence, and distance between levels. This means that social stratification is a recurring pattern in society, it can be modified over time, new social groups can emerge, and there are differences in power and privilege between different levels or strata in society. These axioms help explain the dynamics and structure of social inequality.

Gordon Pask is the correct answer because he made significant contributions to the development of machine learning, which later influenced the advancement of artificial intelligence and robotics. His work in cybernetics and interactive learning systems laid the foundation for the field of machine learning. Pask's ideas and experiments focused on creating machines that could learn and adapt through interaction with their environment, making him a key figure in the early development of machine learning technologies.

Herbert A. Simon introduced the general paradigm of complexity in science. This paradigm focuses on understanding and studying complex systems, which are characterized by a large number of interacting components and their emergent behaviors. The study of complexity involves analyzing the relationships, patterns, and dynamics within these systems to gain insights into their structure and functioning. Simon's work played a significant role in shaping the field of complexity science and its applications in various disciplines such as biology, physics, economics, and social sciences.

Herman Haken proposed and developed "sinergetica" as the way in which different systems or parts of them co-evolve and cooperate to create a new order in these systems or in the processes in which they are involved.

Principiul izomorfismului semnifică gradul de asemănare structurală și funcțională a două sisteme, ceea ce facilitează transferul proprietăților sistemului mai cunoscut către un sistem mai puțin cunoscut. Acest principiu se referă la faptul că două sisteme care au o structură și funcționare similară pot fi înțelese și analizate în același mod, ceea ce permite aplicarea cunoștințelor dobândite într-un sistem asupra celuilalt. Astfel, izomorfismul semnifică o relație de analogie între sisteme, care permite transferul de informații și proprietăți între ele.

The correct answer is d. Conexiune inversă pozitivă şi negativă. This means that after the sign of signal transmission through the reverse connection, we can identify positive and negative reverse connections.

The correct answer is d. Sistemele adaptive complexe. This answer is supported by the phrase "Noua concepţie asupra ciberneticii" which translates to "The new conception of cybernetics." This suggests that there has been a shift in the understanding of cybernetics, and the new focus is on "sistemele adaptive complexe" or "adaptive complex systems." This indicates that the study of cybernetics now includes the analysis and understanding of complex systems that are able to adapt and respond to their environment.

Jay Forrester is known for developing the method of system dynamics. System dynamics is a methodology for understanding and managing complex systems by studying their dynamic behavior over time. It involves creating computer models that simulate the interactions between various components of a system and how they influence each other. This method is used in various fields such as engineering, economics, and social sciences to analyze and solve problems related to system behavior and decision-making.

The correct answer is c. Nivelele diferite nu se dezvoltă continuu, ci în salturi. This means that different levels do not develop continuously, but rather in jumps or leaps. This suggests that there is not a gradual progression from one level to another, but rather distinct and abrupt changes between levels.

The population at time t will be given by the function L(t) = L(0)e^(nt), where L(0) is the initial population size. This is because the equation L'(t) = nL(t) represents exponential growth, where the rate of change of the population is proportional to the population size. The solution to this differential equation is an exponential function with a base of e, where the exponent is the product of the growth rate n and the time t. Therefore, the population at any given time t can be calculated using this function.

Stafford Beer is considered the father of managerial cybernetics. Cybernetics is the study of control and communication in systems, and managerial cybernetics specifically focuses on applying cybernetic principles to management and organizational systems. Stafford Beer made significant contributions to the field by developing the Viable System Model (VSM), which provides a framework for understanding and managing complex organizations. His work has had a lasting impact on the field of management and continues to be influential today.

The correct answer states that the superior category, composed of a diversity of lower elements, contains a specific novelty that is not included in the lower levels. This means that as categories progress to higher levels, new elements or characteristics emerge that were not present in the lower levels. This concept, known as the law of emergence or novum, was formulated by Hartmann.

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The correct answer is c. This is because "Legea verietăţii necesare" states that in order to achieve a given variety at the output of a system, it is necessary to ensure at the input of the system a variety at least as large. In other words, the input variety must be equal to or greater than the output variety.

The correct answer is a. Umberto Maturana, Francesco Varela, Heinz von Foerster. These three individuals played a crucial role in the development of second-order cybernetics. Umberto Maturana and Francisco Varela introduced the concept of autopoiesis, which refers to the self-organization and self-maintenance of living systems. Heinz von Foerster expanded on this idea and further explored the implications of cybernetics in understanding human cognition and social systems. Together, their work laid the foundation for second-order cybernetics, which focuses on the observer's role in the system and the interplay between the observer and the observed.

The correct answer is b. Stuart Kauffman. The book "Origins of Order: Self Organization and Selection" is written by Stuart Kauffman.

James Watt is the correct answer because he is known for inventing the modern steam engine, which is considered a significant technological advancement in the field of mechanics. The steam engine played a crucial role in the Industrial Revolution and paved the way for the development of various other modern technological devices. There is no mention of any other individuals in the question who have made contributions in the field of cybernetics, making James Watt the most plausible answer.