Science Study Guide Quiz Questions

The statement is true because when conducting research or analysis, it is common to focus on studying and understanding individuals as the primary unit of analysis. This approach allows researchers to examine the characteristics, behaviors, and experiences of individuals in order to draw conclusions and make generalizations about larger populations. By studying individuals, researchers can gain insights into various aspects of human behavior and make meaningful interpretations and inferences based on their findings.

The research proposal does not begin with data analysis. It typically starts with an introduction, problem statement, and research objectives. Data analysis is a later stage in the research process, where the collected data is analyzed to draw conclusions and make interpretations.

This statement is false because negative findings are just as important as positive findings. Reporting negative findings is crucial for scientific integrity and transparency. It helps prevent bias and allows others to learn from failed experiments or unsuccessful outcomes. Negative findings can also contribute to the overall body of knowledge in a field and prevent unnecessary duplication of research efforts. Therefore, it is essential to report both positive and negative findings to have a comprehensive understanding of a topic.

The traditional model of science does not begin with operationalization. Operationalization is the process of defining and measuring variables in a scientific study, which typically occurs after the research question has been formulated and the hypothesis has been developed. Therefore, the correct answer is false.

Ethical considerations are not always apparent to us. Sometimes, ethical dilemmas can be complex and require careful analysis and reflection to fully understand. Our personal biases, cultural norms, and limited knowledge can also cloud our judgment and make it difficult to recognize ethical considerations in certain situations. Therefore, it is not accurate to say that ethical considerations are almost always apparent to us.

Karl Marx did not coin the term sociology. The term was actually first used by Auguste Comte, who is often considered the founder of sociology. Marx was a prominent figure in sociology, but he did not invent the term itself.

Science is a systematic method of inquiry that focuses on understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and evidence-based reasoning. While science can provide information and insights that can inform ethical and moral discussions, it cannot settle debates on values. Values are subjective and vary among individuals and cultures, and science is not designed to determine what is right or wrong in terms of personal beliefs and values. Therefore, the statement is false.

Experimental research is commonly used to conduct deductive theory construction. In deductive research, researchers start with a theory or hypothesis and then design experiments to test it. They collect data and analyze it to either support or reject the theory. Inductive theory construction, on the other hand, involves starting with observations and patterns in the data and then developing a theory based on those observations. While experimental research can contribute to theory construction, it is more commonly associated with deductive rather than inductive reasoning.

Using data on cities to develop conclusions about individuals reflects reductionism. Reductionism is the approach of explaining complex phenomena by reducing them to simpler or more fundamental entities. In this case, using data on cities to draw conclusions about individuals oversimplifies the complexity of individual experiences, behaviors, and characteristics. Individuals within a city can have diverse backgrounds, beliefs, and experiences that cannot be accurately captured or generalized by city-level data alone. Therefore, the given statement is false.

A cross-sectional study involves collecting data from a group of individuals at a specific point in time to determine the prevalence of a particular characteristic or outcome. In this case, a review of how support for abortion has changed over a decade would require collecting data from the same individuals over a period of ten years, making it a longitudinal study rather than a cross-sectional study. Therefore, the correct answer is False.

The modern view of reality does not state that what is "real" depends on our points of view. Instead, it suggests that reality exists independently of our perceptions or beliefs. This view emphasizes the existence of an objective reality that is separate from subjective experiences or perspectives. Therefore, the correct answer is False.

Feminist paradigms do not solely focus on the oppression of women. Instead, they aim to analyze and challenge the power dynamics and inequalities that exist between genders. Feminist theories recognize that both men and women can be affected by patriarchal systems and seek to address issues such as gender stereotypes, discrimination, and social expectations. By considering the experiences and perspectives of all genders, feminist paradigms strive for gender equality and social justice. Therefore, the statement that feminist paradigms look only at the oppression of women is false.

The given answer states that all of the options listed are steps in deductive theory construction. This means that each of the steps mentioned - specifying the topic, identifying major concepts and variables, identifying propositions about the relationships among those variables, and reasoning logically from those propositions to the specific topic - are all essential in the process of deductive theory construction.

Exceptions do not necessarily disprove a causal relationship in nomothetic explanations. While exceptions may challenge the generalizability of a causal relationship, they do not invalidate it entirely. Exceptions can be seen as instances where other factors or conditions come into play, leading to different outcomes. Therefore, exceptions can still coexist with a causal relationship, and it is incorrect to say that they frequently disprove it.

The traditional model of science involves three key elements: theory, operationalization, and observation. Theory refers to the conceptual framework or explanation that scientists develop to understand a particular phenomenon. Operationalization involves defining and measuring variables in a way that can be observed and analyzed. Observation is the process of gathering data or evidence through direct or indirect means. These three elements work together in the scientific process: theories guide the formulation of hypotheses, operationalization allows for the testing of these hypotheses through observation, and the results of observation can either support or refute the theory.

The acceptable research behavior of researchers as published by professional associations are not known as rules of engagement. The term "rules of engagement" typically refers to guidelines or instructions for military personnel in combat situations. In the context of research, the acceptable behavior is usually outlined in ethical guidelines or codes of conduct established by professional associations. Therefore, the statement is false.

The given answer is the best fit for the three criteria of causality because it establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables (educational attainment and status attainment in occupation) while controlling for other variables. This means that the increase in educational attainment directly leads to an increase in status attainment in occupation, even when considering other factors that may influence the relationship. The other options either do not establish a clear cause-and-effect relationship or do not consider controlling for other variables.

Attributes are not composed of variables. In object-oriented programming, attributes are the characteristics or properties of an object, while variables are used to store values or references to objects. Although attributes can be implemented using variables, they are not the same thing. Variables are used to manipulate and store data, while attributes define the state and behavior of an object. Therefore, the correct answer is false.

Symbolic interactionism would be the best paradigm for Roberto's study. This paradigm focuses on how individuals create and interpret symbols and meanings in their interactions with others. Roberto's interest in understanding how newly engaged couples define symbols like the engagement ring and communicate their relationships to others aligns with the central ideas of symbolic interactionism. This paradigm emphasizes the importance of shared meanings and the role of communication in shaping social interactions and relationships.

Confidentiality refers to the protection of participants' personal information, ensuring that it is not disclosed to anyone unauthorized. While confidentiality is crucial in research, it does not imply that the researcher is completely unaware of the participants' identities. In many cases, the researcher needs to know the participants' identities to collect accurate data and maintain contact throughout the study. However, confidentiality ensures that the researcher keeps this information secure and does not disclose it to others. Therefore, the statement that a researcher has no way of knowing the identity of research participants is false.

Ethics is the study of what is morally right or wrong, and it deals with principles that govern human behavior. Morality, on the other hand, refers to the principles of right and wrong behavior that individuals adhere to. Therefore, morality is directly related to the topic of ethics as it encompasses the concepts and principles that guide ethical decision-making and behavior.

Researchers should tell readers about the shortcomings of a study. This is important for transparency and to ensure the integrity of the research. By disclosing the limitations or weaknesses of a study, researchers allow readers to critically evaluate the findings and understand any potential biases or limitations that may affect the results. This promotes open and honest communication within the scientific community and helps to build trust in the research process.

Idiographic explanations focus on understanding individual cases and their unique characteristics, while nomothetic explanations aim to establish general laws or principles that apply to a larger group. Both types of explanations have their own value in social scientific research. While nomothetic explanations can provide broader insights and generalizations, idiographic explanations are essential for understanding the complexity and uniqueness of individual cases. Therefore, it is incorrect to say that idiographic explanations are of little use.

The given scenario is an example of inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning involves making generalizations or forming conclusions based on specific observations or patterns. In this case, Professor Pellson observed that the students who sat in the front row consistently received A's, and based on this pattern, she concluded that students who sit in the front row are generally good students. This conclusion is based on the specific observations made by the professor and is not necessarily true for all cases, but it is a reasonable inference based on the observed pattern.

The ethical principle that subjects should be free to participate in a study or not is actually known as the principle of informed consent. This principle emphasizes the importance of providing potential participants with all relevant information about the study, including any potential risks or benefits, so that they can make an autonomous and voluntary decision about whether or not to participate. The no harm to participants principle, on the other hand, refers to the ethical obligation of researchers to minimize any potential harm or risk to participants during the study.

Science is concerned with understanding how things are and the reasons behind them. It aims to explain the natural world and phenomena through empirical evidence and logical reasoning. By observing, experimenting, and analyzing data, scientists seek to uncover the underlying principles and mechanisms that govern the universe. Science is not limited to describing what exists, but also aims to provide explanations for why things occur the way they do. It is a systematic and objective approach to understanding and explaining the world around us.

The ethical principle of voluntary participation threatens the scientific goal of generalizability. This is because voluntary participation means that individuals have the choice to participate or not in a study, which can lead to a biased sample that may not accurately represent the larger population. Generalizability aims to apply findings from a study to a broader population, but if the sample is not representative, the generalizability of the results may be compromised.

A researcher who wishes to become familiar with a new area of interest should not use an explanatory approach. An explanatory approach is used when the researcher already has a good understanding of the topic and wants to explain it further. In contrast, a researcher who wants to become familiar with a new area of interest should use an exploratory approach, which involves gathering information, exploring different perspectives, and gaining a broad understanding of the topic before diving into detailed explanations.

The statement is incorrect. Units of analysis are not limited to individuals, groups, organizations, and artifacts. Units of analysis can also include social interactions, communities, societies, and even nations. Therefore, the correct answer is False.

The first step in constructing a theory is not necessarily identifying major concepts and variables. While it is an important step in the process, it may not always be the first step. Other steps, such as reviewing existing literature, formulating research questions, and collecting data, may come before identifying major concepts and variables. Therefore, the statement is false.

Structural functionalism is a sociological paradigm that explains the impact of economic conditions on family structures. According to this perspective, families serve specific functions in society, such as socializing children, providing emotional support, and maintaining social order. Economic conditions can influence these functions by affecting the resources available to families, their ability to meet basic needs, and their overall well-being. Structural functionalism emphasizes the interdependence between different social institutions, including the economy and the family, and how they work together to maintain social stability and cohesion.

Auguste Comte is credited with coining the term "sociology." He is considered the founder of sociology as a discipline and was the first to use the term in his work. Comte believed that sociology should be a scientific study of society, focusing on the social forces and structures that shape human behavior. His ideas laid the foundation for the development of sociology as a distinct field of study.

Inductive reasoning is the correct answer because Vierling is using specific observations (adolescents who have experienced difficulties in school) to make a general pattern (they are more likely to become juvenile delinquents). Inductive reasoning involves drawing conclusions based on patterns or trends observed in specific instances, and Vierling is using this type of reasoning to make a generalization about the relationship between school difficulties and juvenile delinquency.

Scientists do not focus on studying individuals as separate entities, but rather examine social patterns that emerge when individuals come together in groups or collectives. By studying aggregates, scientists can analyze and understand the behavior, interactions, and dynamics of larger social units, such as communities, organizations, or societies. This approach allows for a broader understanding of social phenomena and enables researchers to identify patterns and trends that may not be apparent when studying individuals in isolation.

The given scenario describes Professor Todd's approach of observing playground interaction for a month in order to develop a theory that explains the observed problems. This aligns with the concept of grounded theory, which involves generating theories based on empirical data and observations rather than starting with preconceived hypotheses. Professor Todd's approach of observing and analyzing real-life interactions to develop a theory is a key characteristic of grounded theory.

Josephine must review her research before it can be done by the Institutional Review Board. The Institutional Review Board (IRB) is responsible for ensuring that research involving human subjects is conducted ethically and in compliance with regulations and guidelines. They review research proposals to assess the potential risks and benefits to participants, as well as the methods and procedures to be used. This review process helps to protect the rights and welfare of the individuals involved in the study.

Milgram's study involving "shocks" violated the ethical principle of harm to subjects because participants were subjected to psychological distress and potential long-term negative effects. Additionally, the study violated the ethical principle of concealed purpose of study as participants were not fully informed about the true nature and purpose of the experiment, which could have affected their voluntary participation and ability to provide informed consent.

A necessary cause represents a condition that must be present for the effect to occur, but it does not guarantee the effect. There may be other factors or causes that are also required for the effect to happen. Therefore, the statement is false.

This study is an example of an exploratory study because the researcher is seeking to gain insights and understanding about off-stage choir member interaction. The researcher is not trying to test a specific hypothesis or make definitive conclusions, but rather to explore and gather information about this topic. The study is designed to generate new ideas and hypotheses that can be further investigated in future research.

In this question, the categories of marital status that Professor Flemming examined are referred to as "attributes." Attributes are characteristics or qualities that can be used to describe or classify something. In this case, the marital status categories are attributes because they describe different statuses that individuals can have in relation to marriage.

The perspective reflected in Bernardo's argument is postmodern. Postmodernism challenges the idea of objective reality and emphasizes that our perception of reality is influenced by our social, cultural, and historical context. Bernardo's belief that nothing is really real and that what people see is a product of their position in society aligns with postmodernist ideas that reality is subjective and constructed.

A study of the role of corporate mergers in the global economy is the best example of macrotheory because it focuses on large-scale social structures and systems, such as the global economy. Macrotheory examines how these structures and systems influence individuals and groups within society. In this case, the study would analyze how corporate mergers impact the overall economy, including factors such as market concentration, competition, and economic growth. This type of analysis is characteristic of macrotheory, which seeks to understand social phenomena at a broader societal level rather than individual interactions or small-scale events.

Auguste Comte is the correct answer because he is known for his emphasis on positivism, which is the belief that knowledge should be based on scientific observation and experimentation. Comte's ideas laid the foundation for the development of social science by promoting the use of empirical evidence and systematic observation in studying society and human behavior. His work influenced many sociologists and social scientists in shaping the field of social science.

In this study, Professor Havidan is using the paradigm of symbolic interactionism. This paradigm focuses on the interactions and communication between individuals, and how they construct and interpret symbols and meanings in their social interactions. By studying the language and symbols that expectant parents use to describe their new roles, Professor Havidan is examining how these individuals interact with each other and construct their understanding of parenthood. This aligns with the central ideas of symbolic interactionism, making it the correct paradigm for this study.

A research proposal typically starts with a statement of a problem or objective because it is important to clearly define the purpose of the study. This statement helps to identify the specific issue that the research aims to address or the objective it seeks to achieve. By stating the problem or objective upfront, the researcher sets the context for the study and provides a clear direction for the research. This allows the reader to understand the significance of the research and its potential impact.

This example reflects the source of understanding known as authority. The person is basing their belief on what their professor has said, indicating that they trust and rely on the knowledge and expertise of their professor as an authority figure in the field.

The individual in this scenario is assuming that because they have had a streak of good luck, something bad must happen to balance it out. This is an example of illogical reasoning, as there is no logical connection between their previous streak of luck and their assumption that they will fail the research project. They are making a faulty inference based on unrelated events.

Milgram's research actually found that a significant number of research subjects were willing to administer shocks to the "pupils" despite their protests and apparent pain. This demonstrated the power of authority and obedience to authority figures, as the subjects were following the instructions of the researcher even when it conflicted with their own moral judgments. Therefore, the correct answer is false.

Informed consent refers to the ethical principle that individuals should be fully informed about the potential risks and benefits of participating in an experiment before they voluntarily agree to take part. In this scenario, Debbie's concern for her subjects to base their participation on a full understanding of the possible risks demonstrates her adherence to the principle of informed consent. This ensures that participants are able to make an informed decision and have the autonomy to decide whether or not to participate in the experiment.

The appropriate unit of analysis reflected in the statement "most Americans believe in God" is individual. This is because the statement is referring to the beliefs of individual Americans and not a specific group, organization, social artifact, or social interaction.

Examining differences in responses of those who return their questionnaires early versus late is not an appropriate strategy for approximating longitudinal studies when only cross-sectional data are available. This strategy does not provide information about changes over time or the stability of the variables being measured. It only captures differences in responses based on the timing of questionnaire completion, which may not be reflective of actual longitudinal changes.

Agreement reality refers to the shared beliefs and understandings that are accepted by a particular group or society. It suggests that much of what we know is based on the consensus and agreement among individuals rather than personal experiences, scientific discoveries, empirical evidence, or logical support. This concept highlights the influence of social and cultural factors in shaping our understanding of the world.

The best example of agreement-based knowledge is when you do not get right next to people when you talk to them because it violates a norm. This is because agreement-based knowledge is based on social norms and cultural agreements. In this example, the person is following a social norm of maintaining personal space when interacting with others. This behavior is considered acceptable and expected in most cultures, demonstrating an understanding and adherence to agreement-based knowledge.

The correct answer suggests that one of the variables in Juanita's study, specifically the choice of major, is not a true variable because it only has one attribute, which is sociology. In other words, there is no variation or diversity in the choice of major among the participants in her study. This indicates that Juanita needs to study more people in order to have a diverse sample with different majors in order to effectively analyze and compare the differences among students who choose different majors.

Frankie's assumption that kids like to be respected by other kids is the starting point for his hypothesis. He then develops a specific testable expectation that boys experience more pressures for delinquency than girls. A hypothesis is a statement or prediction that can be tested or investigated to determine its validity. In this case, Frankie's expectation about the differences in pressures for delinquency between boys and girls fits the definition of a hypothesis.

Confidentiality is the correct answer because it refers to the act of keeping information or responses private and not disclosing them to others without permission. In the given scenario, Cameroon conducted a study where he was able to identify a person's responses but made a promise not to reveal them publicly. This aligns with the concept of confidentiality as he respected the privacy of the participants by keeping their information confidential.

This is an example of an explanatory study because it aims to determine the causal relationship between the amount of time spent in social activities and academic performance. The study seeks to explain how one variable affects the other, providing insights into the cause and effect relationship between social activities and academic performance.

A trend design would be the best choice in this scenario because it allows for the analysis of changes in voter interest over time. This design would involve collecting data at multiple points in time and examining the patterns and trends that emerge. By using a trend design, Senator Robertson can track how voter interest in issues has evolved over the years and identify any significant shifts or patterns that may have occurred.

Observation and logic are the two foundations of science because they form the basis for the scientific method. Observation involves gathering empirical evidence through careful and systematic observation of the natural world. Logic, on the other hand, involves using reasoning and critical thinking to analyze and interpret the observed data. By combining observation with logical reasoning, scientists can formulate hypotheses, test them through experiments or further observations, and draw conclusions based on the evidence. This iterative process of observation and logical analysis allows scientists to build theories and expand our understanding of the natural world.

The student's conclusion that all fraternity men party all the time is an example of overgeneralization. Overgeneralization occurs when a person makes a broad generalization based on a limited number of observations or experiences. In this case, the student is basing her conclusion on the behavior of only two fraternity men, which is not representative of all fraternity men.

In explanatory research, social scientists study the relationships between variables. This means they analyze how different variables are connected or related to each other. By understanding these relationships, researchers can gain insights into the causes and effects of certain phenomena. They can identify patterns, trends, and correlations that help explain why certain outcomes occur. By focusing on relationships, social scientists can better understand the complex interactions between variables and how they contribute to the overall understanding of a particular topic or issue.

The correct answer is theories. The traditional model for portraying science suggests that the scientific process typically starts with theories. Theories are proposed explanations or ideas about how something works or why something happens. These theories are then tested through various methods such as observations, measurements, and experiments to gather evidence and support. Theories serve as the foundation for the scientific inquiry and guide the development of hypotheses, observations, empirical conclusions, and measurements.

Ethical considerations are an integral part of the research process and should be considered at all stages. The selection of the research topic should ensure that it is socially relevant and does not harm any individuals or groups. The selection of subjects should involve obtaining informed consent, ensuring privacy and confidentiality, and minimizing any potential risks. During data gathering, researchers should adhere to ethical guidelines such as protecting participant anonymity and maintaining confidentiality. Data analysis should be conducted with integrity and without bias. Therefore, ethical considerations should be present throughout the entire research process to ensure the rights and well-being of participants are protected.

In Bernetta's study, she ensured anonymity, meaning that she made sure that the researcher (herself) could not identify a given response with a given respondent. This means that the participants' identities were kept confidential, allowing them to provide honest and unbiased responses without fear of being identified or judged.

The degree of relationship between two variables is of particular concern in an explanatory study. In this type of study, the researcher aims to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between variables and understand how one variable influences the other. The focus is on explaining why a certain phenomenon occurs and identifying the factors that contribute to it. Unlike exploratory or descriptive studies, which aim to explore or describe a phenomenon, an explanatory study delves deeper into understanding the underlying mechanisms and reasons behind the observed relationship between variables.

The appropriate unit of analysis reflected in the statement is a group. The statement mentions "families in a community," indicating that the analysis is focused on a collective entity rather than individuals or specific organizations. The movement of families within a year suggests a study of patterns and behaviors at a group level rather than individual actions or social artifacts.

A panel study would best enable a researcher to assess changes associated with attending college for four years. A panel study involves collecting data from the same group of individuals over a period of time, allowing researchers to track changes and trends within that specific group. In this case, a panel study would allow the researcher to follow a group of college students over four years and analyze the changes that occur as a result of attending college. This type of study is ideal for understanding the long-term effects and experiences of attending college.

Cheri is violating the ethical principle of anonymity. Anonymity means that the participants' identities are kept confidential and cannot be linked to their responses. By obtaining a seating chart with the names of the students, Cheri is potentially able to trace the responses back to individual participants, breaching their anonymity. This goes against the assurance she gave to the students and undermines the trust and confidentiality that should be maintained in research.

The correct answer is social artifact. The statement refers to church records, which are a form of social artifact. Social artifacts are objects or documents that are created by people and reflect social phenomena or patterns. In this case, the church records provide evidence of the decline in contributions over the past 20 years, making them the appropriate unit of analysis.

The correct answer is illogical reasoning. This is because Igor's conclusion that the new set of people would definitely be carrying books to class is based on a flawed logic. He assumes that just because he had seen students without books, someone should be carrying books to class. However, this assumption does not necessarily follow and is not supported by any evidence or logical reasoning.

The correct answer is feminist because the professor examined the gender makeup of politicians and made conclusions about how the political institution reflects other institutions of society. This suggests that the professor was using a feminist paradigm, which focuses on understanding and challenging gender inequalities and power dynamics in society.

Indira is using the paradigm of ethnomethodology. Ethnomethodology is a sociological approach that focuses on the ways in which individuals create and maintain social order through their everyday interactions. By asking people to keep diaries about delays and their responses, Indira is studying how individuals make sense of these delays and how they navigate social expectations in their responses. This aligns with the central principles of ethnomethodology, which emphasize the importance of understanding the methods individuals use to construct and interpret social reality.

The major justification for a social scientist requesting participation in a study is that it may help all humanity. Conducting research and gathering data can contribute to the collective knowledge and understanding of various social issues, which can ultimately lead to the development of more effective policies, interventions, and improvements in society as a whole. By studying and analyzing the experiences and perspectives of individuals, social scientists can gain insights that may have broader implications and benefit not only the immediate participants but also society at large.

It is generally accepted that a researcher's personal political orientation should not interfere with or influence the research. This is because personal biases can lead to skewed results and compromise the objectivity and validity of the research. To ensure the integrity of the research process, it is important for researchers to separate their personal beliefs from their professional work and adhere to ethical standards that prioritize unbiased and objective investigation.

The ecological fallacy refers to the incorrect assumption that conclusions drawn about individuals are valid based on data gathered from groups. This occurs when individual-level data is not taken into account and generalizations are made based on group-level data. It is important to recognize that individuals within a group can have different characteristics and behaviors, and therefore, conclusions drawn about individuals cannot be accurately made solely based on group-level data.

Content analysis is the correct answer because it involves systematically analyzing and interpreting the content of various forms of communication, such as written texts, images, or media. This approach is commonly used to develop theories by examining patterns, themes, and meanings within the content. It does not involve conducting surveys, experiments, or field research, but rather focuses on existing data sources.

Spencer was an early theorist who focused on how individuals interacted with one another. He believed that society was made up of individuals who were constantly in competition with each other. He emphasized the importance of social interaction and how it shaped the behavior and development of individuals. His theories laid the foundation for the field of sociology and had a significant impact on understanding social interactions.

Ethics is determined by the agreed upon principles within a community. This means that what is considered ethical can vary from one community to another, as different communities may have different values and norms. Ethical standards are not based on a list of moral absolutes, the authority of the state, cultural directives, or codes of political behavior, but rather on the consensus and shared values within a specific community.

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) were established to ensure the protection and well-being of research participants. Their primary focus is to prevent any harm to participants involved in research studies. IRBs review research protocols and assess potential risks and benefits to participants, ensuring that the study design and procedures prioritize participant safety. This ethical principle of "no harm to participants" is fundamental in research ethics and is the main objective of IRBs.

The correct answer is objectivity and ideology. In research, objectivity refers to the unbiased and impartial approach to gathering and analyzing data, ensuring that personal beliefs or biases do not influence the results. Ideology, on the other hand, refers to the set of beliefs or values that shape the researcher's perspective and may influence the research process. Both objectivity and ideology are important considerations in research, as maintaining objectivity ensures the credibility and reliability of the findings, while acknowledging and addressing ideological influences helps to understand potential biases and limitations in the research.

Professor Lodwicky's study involves comparing the average family size based on data from two different time periods, the 2000 United States Census and the 1990 Census. This indicates that the study is focused on analyzing trends over time and describing the changes in average family size between the two periods. Therefore, the study can be categorized as a trend descriptive study.

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Attrition of study participants is most critical for panel designs. Panel designs involve following the same group of participants over an extended period of time, collecting data at multiple time points. Attrition refers to the loss of participants from the study over time. In panel designs, attrition can significantly impact the validity and generalizability of the findings, as it may introduce bias and affect the representativeness of the sample. Therefore, maintaining a high retention rate and addressing attrition is crucial in panel designs to ensure the reliability and accuracy of the results.

In this question, the correct answer is postmodern. The friend's argument suggests that reality is subjective and that one's point of view influences their perception of what they are trying to measure. This aligns with the postmodern view, which emphasizes the subjective nature of truth and rejects the idea of an objective reality.

The correct answer is deductive. Deductive reasoning involves using general principles or theories to make specific predictions or observations. In this case, Makita studied the literature on binge drinking and found a pattern between gender and binge drinking, which aligns with what would be logically and theoretically expected. She then conducted her own study to test this pattern among college students. This approach reflects deductive reasoning as she used existing knowledge to generate specific hypotheses and test them through empirical research.

The best example of a hypothesis is "The greater the level of education, the greater the tolerance for alternative lifestyles." This statement proposes a relationship between two variables, education level and tolerance for alternative lifestyles, and suggests that as education level increases, tolerance for alternative lifestyles also increases. This statement can be tested and proven or disproven through research and data analysis.

A descriptive study is the most appropriate type of study for a researcher who wants to find out how much time elderly persons in nursing homes spend interacting with each other. This type of study aims to describe the characteristics or behaviors of a particular population or phenomenon. In this case, the researcher would collect data on the amount of time elderly persons spend interacting with each other, without manipulating any variables or trying to establish cause-and-effect relationships. The goal is to provide a clear and accurate description of the situation.

In this scenario, "political orientation" is considered an independent variable because it is the factor that is being studied and manipulated by Senator Josephson. The research aims to examine how different political orientations influence attitudes toward abortion. The independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled in an experiment to observe its effects on the dependent variable, which in this case would be attitudes toward abortion. Therefore, "political orientation" fits the definition of an independent variable in this context.

After developing a theory and hypothesis about adjustment to retirement as related to gender, the next step for Freda according to the traditional model of science is to gather data through observation. This involves conducting research and collecting relevant information to test her hypothesis and validate her theory. By observing and gathering data, Freda will be able to analyze and draw conclusions based on empirical evidence, which is a fundamental aspect of the scientific method.

The Marxist scholars' argument for connecting social research to social action threatens the feature of objectivity in science. Objectivity refers to the impartiality and neutrality of scientific research, where researchers strive to eliminate personal biases and values from their work. By advocating for a close connection between research and action, the Marxist scholars imply that social research should be influenced by and serve specific social and political goals. This undermines the objective nature of scientific inquiry, as it introduces subjective biases and potentially compromises the integrity of the research process.

Exploratory studies are conducted to satisfy a researcher's curiosity by exploring a particular topic or phenomenon. These studies also aim to test the feasibility of conducting a more comprehensive and rigorous study in the future. Additionally, exploratory studies help in developing methods and strategies that can be utilized in a more careful study. Therefore, the given answer accurately identifies the primary purposes of exploratory studies.

Andrew's unit of analysis is artifacts because he studied family conflict as portrayed in the media by reading letters to advice columns. These letters can be considered as artifacts as they are physical or digital objects that provide evidence of family conflict and how it is portrayed in the media.

This scenario describes a situation where the sound of the train whistle predicts the smell of Ms. Stockland's cooking. However, there is no understanding or knowledge of the underlying reason for this connection. Therefore, it can be categorized as "prediction without understanding."

The given scenario reflects pure research. Pure research is conducted for the sake of gaining knowledge and understanding a particular phenomenon, without any immediate practical application or intention to solve a specific problem. In this case, Dunn's interest in understanding the negotiation processes used by arguing couples purely stems from a desire to gain knowledge and not with the intention of using the results to improve couples' lives or any practical application.

Laud Humphrey's study of homosexuals violated the principle of concealed identity of the researcher and anonymity. This means that Humphrey did not maintain the privacy and confidentiality of the participants in his study. By not concealing his own identity and the identities of the participants, he exposed them to potential harm and violated their right to remain anonymous. This breach of confidentiality undermines the trust between researcher and subject and raises ethical concerns about the study.

The explanation for the given correct answer is that ethical considerations are not necessarily more objective than political considerations in social research. Ethical considerations involve subjective judgments about what is morally right or wrong, while political considerations involve the study of power dynamics, social systems, and decision-making processes. Therefore, both ethical and political aspects of social research involve subjective elements and cannot be solely based on objective criteria.

The discussion of the Census best illustrates that undercounting segments of the population has political implications. This implies that if certain groups are not accurately represented in the Census data, it can affect the distribution of political power, funding, and resources.

Lying is particularly common in laboratory experiments because participants may feel more inclined to deceive the researchers or provide false information in a controlled and artificial setting. This could be due to the anonymity provided in the laboratory environment or the desire to manipulate the results for personal gain. Additionally, participants may feel less accountable for their actions in a laboratory setting compared to real-life situations, leading to a higher likelihood of dishonesty.

In order to approximate a longitudinal study in his cross-sectional study, Nate can make logical inferences based on the time order of the variables. This means that he can analyze the data and identify the sequence in which the variables occur, allowing him to make causal assertions about the effects of high school involvement on violence among young adults. By examining the time order, Nate can infer the directionality of the relationship between the variables and gain insights into the potential causal effects.

The correct answer is "introduction and review of the literature". In a research proposal, the first step is typically to introduce the topic and provide background information. This helps to set the context for the research and explain its significance. The second step is to review the existing literature on the topic. This involves examining previous studies, theories, and findings related to the research question. This step helps to identify any gaps or unanswered questions in the literature, which can then be addressed in the proposed research.

Cross-sectional studies are limited in their ability to establish causality because they only provide a snapshot of data at a single point in time. These studies do not follow individuals over time, so it is challenging to determine the cause and effect relationship between variables. Other study designs, such as longitudinal studies, are better suited for establishing causality as they allow for the examination of changes over time. Therefore, the correct answer is that cross-sectional studies make it difficult to infer causality.

Deductive theory construction generally begins with specifying the topic of interest. This means that researchers first determine the specific area or subject they want to study and develop a theory about. By clearly defining the topic of interest, researchers can focus their efforts on understanding and explaining phenomena related to that particular area. This initial step helps guide the rest of the theory construction process, including identifying relevant concepts and variables, exploring existing knowledge on the subject, and logically reasoning from the obtained propositions to analyze the specific topic.

The given answer, "they help identify the more appropriate ways to view the world," is incorrect because it is actually a function of theories. Theories provide frameworks and perspectives that help us understand and interpret the world around us. They guide our perception and help us make sense of the information we encounter. Therefore, this statement contradicts the actual role of theories and is not a valid explanation.

Symbolic interactionalism is a sociological paradigm that focuses on the interactions between individuals and how they create meaning through symbols and language. It emphasizes the role of social interaction in shaping one's sense of self and understanding of the world. This perspective suggests that individuals develop their identities and behaviors based on their interactions with others and the meanings they ascribe to those interactions. It also emphasizes the importance of symbols, gestures, and shared meanings in social interactions.

This answer suggests that feminist paradigms provide an understanding of how gender differences are connected to the broader social structure. These paradigms likely examine how societal norms, power dynamics, and cultural beliefs shape and perpetuate gender inequalities. By focusing on feminist perspectives, the explanation implies that these paradigms offer insights into the ways in which gender impacts various aspects of social organization, such as institutions, relationships, and social roles.

Critical race theory is a paradigm that examines how race influences our comprehension of social phenomena. It explores how racial hierarchies and systems of power shape societal structures and institutions. This theory emphasizes the importance of recognizing and challenging racism and inequality in order to achieve social justice. By examining the impact of race on various aspects of society, critical race theory aims to bring about a deeper understanding of racial dynamics and promote equity and inclusivity.

Cross-sectional studies are research studies that examine a specific population or group at a single point in time. In these studies, data is collected from a diverse group of individuals or units of analysis, providing a snapshot of a particular phenomenon or characteristic. This type of study design allows researchers to gather information about the prevalence of certain variables or conditions within a population, without having to follow them over time. Cross-sectional studies are useful for generating hypotheses and identifying associations between variables, but they cannot establish causality or determine the temporal sequence of events.

Cohort studies involve conducting longitudinal studies where independent samples of the same age group are studied at two or more points in time. This allows researchers to track and analyze changes and outcomes over time within a specific cohort. By comparing data from different time periods, cohort studies can provide valuable insights into the effects of various factors on a particular group of individuals.

Panel studies refer to longitudinal studies where the same group of individuals is observed and studied at multiple points in time. This allows researchers to track changes and developments within the same group over time, providing valuable insights into the effects of various factors on individuals' lives. Panel studies are useful for understanding trends, patterns, and causal relationships, as they provide a more comprehensive understanding of how individuals change over time compared to cross-sectional studies.