Chapter 51: Animal Behavior

A chemical produced by an animal that serves as a communication to another animal of the same species is called a pheromone. Pheromones are chemical signals that are released into the environment and are used for various purposes such as attracting mates, marking territories, or signaling danger. They play a crucial role in communication and social behavior among animals of the same species.

Altruism is the act of selflessly helping others, while the other terms refer to different forms of relationships or marriage. Altruism is unrelated to monogamy, polygamy, polygyny, and polyandry, as these terms are all related to different types of relationships or marriage practices.

Classical conditioning is a type of learning where an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a biologically significant stimulus, resulting in a learned response. In this case, the specifically trained dogs have learned to associate the sound of bells with the presentation of food, causing them to salivate when they hear bells alone. This is a classic example of classical conditioning, as the dogs have formed a conditioned response (salivation) to a conditioned stimulus (bells) through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (food).

The term that best applies to this behavior is "sign stimulus." A sign stimulus refers to a specific feature or cue in the environment that triggers a particular response or behavior in an organism. In this case, the red coloring of the fish model acts as a sign stimulus that elicits the stickleback fish's aggressive response.

The group of scientists closely associated with ethology is von Frisch, Lorenz, and Tinbergen. Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior, and these three scientists made significant contributions to this field. Karl von Frisch is known for his research on honeybee communication and the waggle dance. Konrad Lorenz is famous for his work on imprinting and ethological studies of geese and other animals. Nikolaas Tinbergen is known for his research on instinctive behavior and the study of animal behavior in natural settings. Together, these scientists have greatly advanced our understanding of animal behavior and the field of ethology.

An uncle to his nephew does not have a coefficient of relatedness of 0.5 because the coefficient of relatedness represents the genetic similarity between two individuals. In this case, the uncle and nephew share only one common ancestor (the sibling of one of the parents), resulting in a coefficient of relatedness of 0.25.

The time during imprinting when specific behaviors can be learned is called the sensitive period. This period is a critical phase in an animal's development where it is most receptive to learning and forming attachments. During this time, the animal is highly sensitive to environmental stimuli and can quickly acquire and retain certain behaviors or characteristics. It is a crucial period for imprinting, as the animal's brain is more plastic and adaptable, allowing for the formation of strong bonds and the acquisition of important skills.

The correct answer is that most aspects of our social behavior have an evolutionary basis. Sociobiology is a field of study that examines the social behavior of organisms, including humans, in terms of evolutionary principles. It suggests that many of our social behaviors, such as cooperation, aggression, and mate selection, have evolved over time due to their adaptive value in promoting survival and reproduction. This perspective emphasizes the role of genetics and natural selection in shaping our social behaviors.

Optimal foraging is the behavior where animals try to maximize their energy intake-to-expenditure ratio. This means that they seek out the most efficient ways to obtain food while minimizing the energy they need to spend in the process. By selecting the most profitable food sources and using efficient foraging strategies, animals can maximize their energy gain and increase their chances of survival and reproduction.

Imprinting is a type of learning that occurs during a critical period early in an organism's life and results in a behavior that is difficult to change later on. This process involves forming a strong and lasting attachment to a specific object or individual, typically the mother or caregiver. Imprinting is important for the survival and development of many species, as it helps young animals recognize and bond with their parents, learn important skills, and navigate their environment. Once imprinting occurs, it is challenging to modify or reverse the learned behavior through later experiences.

Animals that help other animals of the same species are expected to be genetically related to the other animals. This is because animals that are genetically related share a portion of their genes with one another. Therefore, by helping other animals of the same species, they are indirectly helping to pass on their own genes and increase their own genetic fitness. This behavior is known as kin selection, where animals are more likely to help relatives as it increases the chances of their own genes being passed on to future generations.

Optimal foraging refers to feeding behavior that maximizes the energy intake-to-expenditure ratio. This means that an organism tries to obtain the maximum amount of energy from its food while minimizing the energy it spends in the process. It involves making strategic decisions about what, when, and how to eat in order to optimize energy gain. This behavior is observed in various organisms, including animals that hunt for prey, gatherers that collect food, and even plants that allocate resources efficiently.

Habituation refers to the loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little or no new information. It occurs when an organism becomes accustomed to a repeated or constant stimulus and no longer responds to it. This process allows organisms to filter out irrelevant or unimportant stimuli, conserving their attention and energy for more significant stimuli. Therefore, habituation is the correct answer in this case.

Animal communication involves the use of visual, auditory, and chemical sensory information. Visual communication includes the use of body language, facial expressions, and coloration to convey messages. Auditory communication involves the use of sounds, such as vocalizations or calls, to communicate with other animals. Chemical communication involves the use of pheromones or chemical signals to communicate information about reproductive status, territory, or danger. These three types of sensory information are essential for animals to communicate effectively with each other in their natural environments.

A visual signal is fast and requires daylight with no obstructions because it relies on the sense of sight. Visual signals can be quickly processed by the brain and are most effective when there is ample light and no obstacles blocking the line of sight.

Imprinting is the term that best applies to the behavior described in the question. Imprinting refers to a critical period in which certain animals, like sparrows, are most receptive to learning specific behaviors or forming social attachments. During this sensitive period, sparrows are able to learn and memorize songs. This behavior is different from habituation, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning, which involve different types of learning processes. Sign stimulus is also unrelated to the behavior described.

Coastal garter snakes have a higher ability to eat banana slugs because their ancestors who could consume these slugs were more fit and had a higher chance of survival. This selection pressure led to the development of this trait in coastal snakes. Inland garter snakes, on the other hand, did not experience the same selection pressure because banana slugs were not present in their habitat. Therefore, the difference in reaction to banana slug prey between coastal and inland garter snakes can be explained by the absence of selection for this trait in the inland population.

Niko Tinbergen formulated four questions that motivate the modern study of animal behavior. These questions include understanding the causation, development, function, and evolution of behavior. Tinbergen's work has been influential in the field of ethology and has provided a framework for investigating and understanding animal behavior.

In the territorial behavior of stickleback fish, the red belly of one male elicits an attack from another male by functioning as a sign stimulus. A sign stimulus is a specific cue or signal that triggers a particular behavior in another animal. In this case, the red belly acts as a visual signal that communicates aggression or territoriality to other males, prompting them to attack. This behavior is a result of the innate response to the sign stimulus, rather than being learned or conditioned.

The observation of cockroaches scurrying to dark hiding places after turning on a light suggests the concept of taxis. Taxis refers to the movement of an organism in response to a stimulus, in this case, light. The cockroaches' movement towards dark hiding places indicates a negative phototaxis, where they are moving away from the light source. This behavior is instinctive and helps the cockroaches find shelter and safety.

The first explanation refers to proximate causation, which is the immediate cause of a behavior or physiological response. It explains the specific mechanisms and processes involved in the behavior. The second explanation, on the other hand, refers to ultimate causation, which is the evolutionary reason or function behind a behavior. It explains why the behavior evolved and how it benefits the organism in terms of survival and reproduction. Therefore, the statement "the first explanation refers to proximate causation, whereas the second refers to ultimate causation" best describes these explanations.

Mayflies typically lay their eggs in water, so if they were to lay their eggs on roads instead, it suggests a misdirected response to a sign stimulus. The sign stimulus for mayflies to lay eggs is likely something present in water, such as the presence of certain chemicals or the reflection of light. The mayflies are mistakenly responding to a similar sign stimulus on roads, leading to the misplacement of their eggs. This behavior could be a result of their innate instincts being triggered by the wrong environmental cues.

The correct answer is that increased urination in a female cat in heat is a result of hormonal changes associated with her reproductive cycle. During the heat cycle, the female cat's body releases hormones that stimulate the production of urine. This increased urination serves as a way for the female cat to mark her territory and communicate her availability to potential mates. The hormonal changes trigger this behavior, which is a natural and instinctive response during the reproductive cycle of a female cat.

Innate behaviors are expressed in most individuals in a population across a wide range of environmental conditions. This means that these behaviors are not dependent on specific genetic factors and are not limited to certain individuals or environmental conditions. Instead, they are commonly observed and consistent among individuals within a population, regardless of their genetic makeup or the environment they are in.

Behavior is ultimately shaped by evolution because it refers to the process of natural selection acting on behaviors over generations. Evolutionary processes have led to the development of certain behaviors that have proven to be advantageous for survival and reproduction. These behaviors are passed down through genes, allowing individuals with these behaviors to have a higher chance of passing on their genes to the next generation. Therefore, evolution plays a crucial role in shaping behavior by selecting for traits that enhance an organism's fitness in its environment.

Habituation best applies to this behavior because it refers to the process of becoming less responsive to a repeated or irrelevant stimulus over time. In this case, the male insects initially attempt to mate with the orchids but eventually stop responding to them, indicating a decrease in their response to the stimulus of the orchids. This behavior can be explained by habituation, as the insects have become habituated to the orchids and no longer find them relevant or stimulating.

Classical conditioning is the best term to apply to this behavior because the guinea pig has learned to associate the sound of the refrigerator door opening with the lettuce it loves. Over time, the guinea pig has developed a conditioned response of squealing whenever the door opens, even before it sees the lettuce. This is a classic example of how an animal can be conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus through repeated pairings of that stimulus with a reward or punishment.

Operant conditioning involves consequences for the animal's behavior. Unlike classical conditioning, which focuses on associating stimuli with a response, operant conditioning emphasizes the consequences that follow a behavior. These consequences can be either positive or negative, such as rewards or punishments, and they shape the likelihood of the behavior occurring again in the future. This means that operant conditioning requires the animal to understand the relationship between its actions and the outcomes they produce, suggesting a higher level of intelligence compared to classical conditioning.

Altruistic behavior is most likely due to kin selection, which is the theory that genes enhance survival of copies of themselves by directing organisms to assist others who share those genes. This explanation suggests that organisms are more likely to help individuals who are genetically related to them, as by helping their relatives, they are indirectly helping to pass on their own genes. This behavior promotes the survival of genes and increases the chances of their own genetic material being passed on to future generations.

An auditory signal is a type of signal that can work at night or among obstructions. Auditory signals refer to sounds or noises that can be heard by the human ear. Unlike visual signals, which rely on light and may be hindered by darkness or obstructions, auditory signals can penetrate through darkness and obstructions, making them effective in such situations. Therefore, an auditory signal is the correct answer in this context.

The behavior described in the question is known as a sign stimulus. A sign stimulus is a specific sensory cue that triggers a particular behavior in an organism. In this case, the cheeping sound of young chicks serves as the sign stimulus that triggers parental protective behavior in turkeys.

This scenario demonstrates classical conditioning because the fish have learned to associate John entering the room with being fed. Over time, they have formed a conditioned response, swimming to the top of the tank, in anticipation of being fed. This is a classic example of how a neutral stimulus (John entering the room) becomes associated with a natural response (being fed) through repeated pairings, resulting in a learned behavior.

The concept of optimal foraging is least related to the others because it pertains to the behavior of animals in finding and consuming food in a way that maximizes their energy gain. On the other hand, fixed action patterns, pheromones, sign stimuli, and hormones are all related to animal behavior and communication. Fixed action patterns are innate sequences of behaviors triggered by specific stimuli, pheromones are chemical signals used for communication between individuals of the same species, sign stimuli are specific cues that trigger a response, and hormones are chemical messengers that regulate various physiological processes in animals.

Konrad Lorenz is the correct answer because he was a scientist who extensively studied the phenomenon of imprinting in greylag geese. Imprinting refers to the process by which young animals develop a strong attachment to their caregiver or a specific object during a critical period early in their life. Lorenz conducted experiments and observations on greylag geese, which led to significant insights into the mechanisms and effects of imprinting. His work in this field earned him a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1973.

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The most specific behavior described by this example is agonistic behavior. This is evident from the interaction between Fred and Joe, where Fred grunts, drums his chest, and bares his teeth in response to Joe's approach. Joe's submissive behavior of rolling on the ground and quickly leaving further supports the idea of a conflict or aggression between the two gorillas. Agonistic behavior refers to any behavior associated with conflict, aggression, or competition between individuals of the same species.

William Hamilton devised a rule known as Hamilton's rule, which predicts when natural selection should favor altruism. Hamilton's rule states that altruistic behavior is more likely to evolve when the cost to the altruist is low, the benefit to the recipient is high, and when the individuals involved share a sufficient degree of genetic relatedness. This rule helps explain why organisms sometimes act in ways that benefit others at their own expense.

The best way to determine whether the initiation of migratory behavior is largely under genetic control is to perform within-population matings with birds from different populations that have different migratory habits. By rearing the offspring in the absence of their parents and observing their migratory behavior, any differences in migratory habits can be attributed to genetic factors rather than environmental influences. This experimental design allows for the isolation of genetic factors and provides a clearer understanding of the role genetics play in migratory behavior.

The behavior of male mosquitoes flying to the earphone and thrusting their abdomen through the fabric of the cage can be best explained by the fact that copulation is a fixed action pattern, and the female flight sound serves as a sign stimulus that triggers this behavior. This means that the male mosquitoes have an innate response to the specific stimulus of the female flight sound, which initiates their mating behavior. This behavior is not a result of irritation or confusion, but rather a natural and instinctive response to the sign stimulus.

A behavioral trait can evolve by natural selection even if the form of the behavior is not determined entirely by genes. Natural selection acts on the variation in behavior among individuals, and individuals with behaviors that increase their reproductive success are more likely to pass on their genes. The genetic component of the behavior is important, but it does not have to be the sole determinant of the behavior's form. Other factors, such as environmental influences or learning, can also play a role in shaping the behavior.

Based on the information provided, where the male is described as large and ornamental compared to the female, it can be inferred that the species is polygamous. In polygamous species, males often have elaborate traits or ornaments to attract multiple mates. This behavior is commonly observed in species where males compete for access to females and engage in mating with multiple partners.

Polyandry is the best term to describe this behavior because it refers to a mating system in which a female mates with multiple males and leaves them to care for the offspring. In this case, the female spotted sandpipers aggressively court males, mate with them, and then leave the clutch of young for the male to incubate. This behavior may be repeated with different males until no available males remain, forcing the female to incubate her last clutch. This pattern of multiple male partners and male parental care aligns with the definition of polyandry.

A "crystallized" song refers to the final song that some species of song birds produce. This means that as the bird matures, it learns and develops its song over time, and the "crystallized" song is the fully developed, final version of the song that the bird sings. This is different from other options such as high pitched songs, songs aimed at attracting mates, songs sung by extremely young chicks, or songs that warn of predators, as these options do not specifically refer to the final song produced by some species.

The most likely explanation for the behavioral difference between chimpanzee populations in using stones to crack open nuts is that the cultural tradition of using stones has only developed in certain populations. This suggests that the behavior is not genetically determined or influenced by nutritional requirements, learning ability, or manual dexterity. Instead, it is likely that the use of stones to crack nuts is a learned behavior that has been passed down through generations within specific populations.

Imprinting refers to a type of learning where an animal forms a strong bond or attachment to its parent or surroundings shortly after birth. In the case of a salmon returning to its home stream to spawn, this behavior can be considered as imprinting because the salmon is instinctively drawn back to its place of birth to reproduce. This behavior is crucial for the survival and reproductive success of the species.

According to Hamilton's rule, natural selection favors altruistic acts when the resulting benefit to the beneficiary, correct for relatedness, exceeds the cost to the altruist. This means that an individual is more likely to engage in altruistic behavior if the benefit to the recipient is greater than the personal cost to the altruist, taking into account how closely related they are. This concept explains why organisms may exhibit selfless behavior towards their relatives, as it increases the chances of their shared genes being passed on to future generations.

Kinesis is a type of movement response exhibited by organisms in response to a stimulus, where the speed or rate of movement is influenced by the intensity of the stimulus. In this case, sow bugs becoming more active in dry areas and less active in humid areas indicates that their movement is influenced by the moisture level in the environment. This aligns with the concept of kinesis, as their activity level is changing in response to the stimulus of humidity.

William Hamilton developed the concept of inclusive fitness. Inclusive fitness is a theory in evolutionary biology that explains the importance of an individual's genetic contribution to the survival and reproduction of not only their own offspring but also their relatives. Hamilton's work on inclusive fitness helped to explain the evolution of altruistic behaviors, such as helping relatives or sacrificing oneself for the benefit of the group. His ideas have had a significant impact on our understanding of social behavior and cooperation in animals.

Operant conditioning is the best term to describe this behavior because the bird is learning to peck through the cardboard tops of milk bottles and drink the cream based on the consequences of its actions. It is likely that the bird initially discovered this behavior by chance, but it continues to engage in this behavior because it is reinforced by the reward of drinking the cream. Over time, the bird learns that pecking through the cardboard tops of milk bottles leads to a desirable outcome, and this behavior becomes more frequent.

The dog's behavior is a result of operant conditioning because it has learned that by barking, it receives attention. Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on the consequences they bring. In this case, the dog has learned that barking brings the consequence of attention, which reinforces the behavior and increases the likelihood of it happening again in the future.