AP Government ChAPters 14-16

Federal judges and justices serve lifetime positions. This means that once appointed, they hold their positions until they retire, resign, or are impeached. This is intended to provide stability and independence to the judiciary, allowing judges to make decisions without fear of political pressure or influence. Unlike other elected or appointed positions, federal judges do not have fixed terms and can remain in office for the rest of their lives.

Amicus curiae briefs are submitted by individuals or organizations who are not directly involved in a legal case but have a strong interest in the outcome. These briefs allow them to present their perspectives and provide additional information to the Supreme Court, hoping to influence the court's decision. The term "amicus curiae" literally means "friend of the court," indicating that these briefs are meant to assist the court in reaching a fair and just decision.

Policies for which Congress has obligated itself to pay a certain level of benefits based on a certain number of recipients are known as entitlements. This means that Congress has committed to providing specific benefits to individuals or groups who meet certain criteria, regardless of the overall budget or funding availability. These entitlement programs are typically designed to provide social welfare or assistance to those in need, such as Social Security or Medicare.

A class action suit is a legal action where a small group of individuals, known as the plaintiffs, sue on behalf of a larger group of people who have similar claims or grievances. This allows for a more efficient resolution of legal issues that affect a large number of individuals, as it consolidates multiple cases into one. It also ensures that individuals who may not have the resources or ability to file individual lawsuits still have the opportunity to seek justice and compensation.

Concurring opinions are those offered by one or more Supreme Court justices not only to support a majority decision but also to stress a different Constitutional or legal basis for the judgment. This means that while the justices agree with the majority decision, they may have different reasoning or interpretations of the law. Concurring opinions can provide alternative perspectives and arguments that may influence future legal decisions.

Courts with appellate jurisdiction are responsible for reviewing the legal issues involved in a case. This means that their role is to examine the decisions made by lower courts and determine if any errors were made in the application or interpretation of the law. Unlike courts with original jurisdiction, which have the authority to hear cases for the first time and determine the facts, appellate courts focus solely on the legal aspects of a case. They do not have the power to determine the facts or hear new evidence. Therefore, the correct answer is "review the legal issues involved in the case."

Forty years ago, the most expensive part of the federal budget was military spending. This suggests that a significant portion of the government's funds were allocated towards defense and armed forces. It implies that the government prioritized national security and defense initiatives during that time, potentially due to geopolitical factors or conflicts happening globally. The other options, such as education, roads and bridges, social services, and health care, were not as costly as military spending at that time.

Incremental budgeting is a budgeting approach where small increases are provided in the current budget over the previous year's budget. This means that the budget is built upon the previous year's budget and small increments are added to it. This approach allows for stability and continuity in budgeting, as it is easier to manage small increases rather than drastic changes. It also allows for better planning and allocation of resources as it takes into account the previous year's budget and builds upon it.

There are 12 federal courts of appeal, a Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, and 91 federal district courts.

Employers and employees both pay Social Security taxes. This tax is split between the employer and the employee, with each contributing a certain percentage of the employee's wages. The employer is responsible for withholding the employee's portion of the tax and submitting it to the government on their behalf. This tax is used to fund the Social Security program, which provides benefits to retired workers, disabled individuals, and their dependents. Therefore, both employers and employees have a financial obligation to contribute to the Social Security system.

Social Security is the largest social policy of the federal government because it provides financial support to retired and disabled individuals, as well as to the dependents of deceased workers. It is a comprehensive program that covers a wide range of beneficiaries and plays a crucial role in ensuring the economic well-being of millions of Americans. Social Security is funded through payroll taxes and is administered by the Social Security Administration.

The concept of original intent suggests that judges and justices should analyze the intentions of the Framers of the Constitution with regards to a specific issue and make decisions accordingly. This means that they should interpret the Constitution based on the original understanding and purpose of its creators. By doing so, they can ensure that their rulings align with the original intent of the Framers, rather than imposing their own personal beliefs or adapting the principles to fit the demands of the current era.

Once a policy decision has been made, the bureaucracy is responsible for its implementation. This means that the bureaucracy is in charge of putting the policy into action, ensuring that it is carried out effectively and efficiently. This involves developing specific plans and strategies, coordinating with different departments and agencies, allocating resources, and monitoring progress. The bureaucracy plays a crucial role in translating policy decisions into practical actions that can achieve the intended goals and objectives.

A budget deficit occurs when expenditures exceed revenues. This means that the amount of money spent by the government is greater than the amount of money it receives through various sources such as taxes, fees, and other income. When this happens, the government may need to borrow money to cover the shortfall, which can lead to increased debt. Inflation and authorizations are not directly related to budget deficits.

Class action suits permit a small number of people to sue on behalf of all other people similarly situated. In a class action suit, a representative plaintiff brings a lawsuit on behalf of a larger group of people who have similar claims. This allows for efficiency in the legal process, as it would be impractical for each individual to file a separate lawsuit. Class action suits are often used when there are widespread harms or when it would be difficult for individuals to pursue their claims individually.

The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) was created as a federal agency specifically to collect the federal income tax. It is responsible for enforcing tax laws, processing tax returns, and collecting taxes from individuals and businesses. The IRS plays a crucial role in the administration of the federal tax system and ensures that taxpayers comply with their tax obligations.

An "iron triangle" refers to a close and mutually beneficial relationship between a bureaucratic agency, an interest group, and a congressional committee or subcommittee. These three entities work together to shape and influence the creation and implementation of regulations. The bureaucratic agency is responsible for overseeing and enforcing the regulations, the interest group represents the specific industry or stakeholders affected by the regulations, and the congressional committee or subcommittee has the authority to create and amend the regulations. This collaboration often leads to policies that favor the interest group while still maintaining the appearance of government oversight and regulation.

Judicial activism refers to a judicial philosophy where judges make bold policy decisions, including charting new constitutional ground. It involves judges actively interpreting the law, sometimes even going beyond established legal precedents, to bring about social or political change. This approach is often associated with a willingness to challenge existing laws and take an active role in shaping public policy.

The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, explicitly permitted Congress to levy an income tax. This means that before the amendment, Congress did not have the power to impose an income tax. The amendment granted Congress the authority to tax individuals' income, allowing them to generate revenue for the federal government. This change in the Constitution was a significant development in the history of taxation in the United States.

Standing to sue refers to the requirement that plaintiffs have a serious interest in the case. This means that individuals or parties who wish to bring a lawsuit must have a direct and personal stake in the outcome of the case. They must demonstrate that they have been personally affected or injured by the actions or decisions being challenged in the lawsuit. Without standing, a plaintiff does not have the legal right to bring a lawsuit and have their case heard in court. Therefore, standing is a crucial aspect of the legal system to ensure that only those with a genuine interest in the case can pursue legal action.

If four Supreme Court justices agree to grant review of a case, it can be scheduled for oral argument or decided on the basis of the written record already on file with the Court.

Precedent refers to the way similar cases were handled in the past, and it serves as a guide for current decisions in all courts. By looking at previous rulings, judges can establish consistency and predictability in the legal system. Precedent helps ensure fairness and uniformity in the application of the law, as it prevents arbitrary decisions and allows for the development of legal principles over time. Therefore, all courts heavily rely on precedent to make informed and consistent judgments.

The correct answer is "more broadly representative of the American people than the rest of the federal government." This means that the permanent federal bureaucracy includes a wider range of individuals from different backgrounds and demographics, making it more reflective of the diversity within the American population compared to other branches of the federal government.

Patronage is a hiring and promotion system that is based on knowing the right people. This means that individuals are selected for positions or advancements based on their personal connections and relationships rather than their qualifications or abilities. This practice often leads to nepotism and favoritism, as individuals who are well-connected or have influential relationships are given preferential treatment in the hiring and promotion process.

In 1965, Medicare was added to the Social Security program to provide health care coverage to the elderly.

Administrative discretion refers to the authority of administrative actors to choose from different options or responses when faced with a problem. It allows them to exercise judgment and make decisions based on their expertise and understanding of the situation. This discretion is essential in navigating complex administrative tasks and adapting to unique circumstances. The other options mentioned in the question, such as the definition of alternatives, policy implementation, the merit principle, and selective management, do not accurately describe the concept of administrative discretion.

Government corporations are entities that are owned and operated by the government but function like private businesses. They provide various services to the public and charge fees or prices for those services. This allows them to generate revenue and cover their operating costs. Unlike independent regulatory agencies, which have the authority to regulate specific industries, government corporations focus on providing services and operating in sectors such as airlines, steel manufacturing, or health insurance.

Courts with appellate jurisdiction hear cases brought to them on appeal from a lower court. Appellate jurisdiction refers to the power of a higher court to review and revise decisions made by lower courts. These courts do not hold trials or hear evidence, but rather review the legal decisions made in the lower court to determine if any errors were made. Therefore, the correct answer is "appellate" because it accurately describes the type of jurisdiction that these courts have.

The Congressional Budget Office has been established to assist Congress in making budgeting decisions. It provides objective and nonpartisan analysis of economic and budgetary issues, prepares cost estimates for proposed legislation, and projects the costs and economic effects of policy alternatives. This agency plays a crucial role in helping Congress make informed decisions about the federal budget and fiscal policies.

The Weberian model views bureaucracies as efficient and necessary because it argues that a bureaucratic system with clear rules, hierarchical authority, and specialization of tasks can lead to efficient and effective administration. According to Max Weber, bureaucracies are necessary for the smooth functioning of complex organizations and societies, as they provide stability, predictability, and expertise in decision-making processes. This perspective emphasizes the importance of bureaucracy in achieving organizational goals and maintaining order and efficiency.

There are 15 cabinet departments headed by a secretary chosen by the president and approved by the Senate. The cabinet departments are crucial in advising the president on various matters and implementing policies. Each department focuses on specific areas such as defense, justice, treasury, and education, among others. The secretaries play a vital role in leading these departments and working closely with the president to shape and execute the administration's agenda.

The correct answer is the plaintiff and the defendant. In a legal case, the litigants are the parties involved in the lawsuit. The plaintiff is the party who initiates the lawsuit and brings the case to court, seeking a legal remedy. The defendant, on the other hand, is the party against whom the lawsuit is filed and who must defend themselves against the claims made by the plaintiff. Therefore, both the plaintiff and the defendant are considered as litigants in a legal case.

Stare decisis is the correct answer because it refers to the principle that previous court decisions should be followed when deciding similar cases. This principle promotes consistency and predictability in the legal system. By adhering to stare decisis, the federal courts ensure that their rulings are based on established legal precedents, giving weight to the decisions made in the past. This principle is important in maintaining the stability and integrity of the judicial system.

The correct answer is "fewer than 100" because the statement mentions that the Supreme Court issues formal written opinions that could serve as precedent. Precedents are legal decisions that serve as a guide for future cases. If the Supreme Court issues fewer than 100 formal written opinions, it means that there are fewer cases that can be used as a basis of guidance for lower courts.

The correct answer is "statement of the legal reasoning behind a decision." This is because a written opinion in a Supreme Court case provides the explanation and justification for the court's decision. It outlines the legal reasoning and principles applied by the justices in reaching their conclusion. It serves as an important source of precedent and guidance for future cases and helps to establish the legal principles and interpretation of the law.

The correct answer is "fewer than 200." The Supreme Court has ruled a federal law unconstitutional fewer than 200 times. This means that out of the numerous federal laws that have been passed, the Supreme Court has found only a small number of them to be in violation of the Constitution. This highlights the Court's role in interpreting and upholding the Constitution by striking down laws that are deemed unconstitutional.

The correct answer suggests that the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was successfully implemented due to its clear goal, clear methods to achieve the goal, and lack of bureaucratic fragmentation. This implies that the legislation had a defined objective, a well-defined plan to achieve that objective, and a lack of complications or obstacles caused by bureaucratic divisions. These factors contributed to the successful implementation of the act.

Regulation refers to the use of governmental authority to control or change practices in the private sector. It involves the creation and enforcement of rules and standards to ensure compliance and maintain order. Policy implementation, on the other hand, refers to the process of putting policies into action. Administrative discretion refers to the authority given to public administrators to make decisions within their scope of authority. Public administration is a broader term that encompasses the management and implementation of government policies and programs. Patronage refers to the practice of granting favors or rewards in exchange for support or loyalty.

The General Schedule is the correct answer because it refers to the schedule for federal employees ranging from GS 1 to GS 18, where salaries are determined based on rating and experience. The General Schedule is a pay system used by the U.S. government to determine the salaries of most white-collar federal employees. It establishes pay grades and steps, with higher grades indicating higher levels of responsibility and experience. This system ensures that federal employees are compensated fairly and consistently based on their qualifications and experience.

Sales taxes are not one of the major sources of federal revenues. The major sources of federal revenues include social insurance taxes, personal income taxes, corporate income taxes, and borrowing. Sales taxes are typically collected by state and local governments, not the federal government. These taxes are imposed on the sale of goods and services and are used to fund state and local government programs and services.

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Implementation refers to the process of putting court decisions into action and ensuring that they are effectively carried out. It involves translating the rulings and judgments into practical policies that can impact the behavior of individuals and institutions. Implementation is crucial for the proper functioning of the judicial system as it ensures that court decisions have real-world consequences and can bring about the desired changes or outcomes.

The requirement that cases must be capable of being settled as a matter of law rather than on other grounds is known as justiciable disputes. This means that the court must have the authority to hear and resolve the legal issues presented in a case, rather than being based on other factors such as political or social considerations. Justiciable disputes are those that are appropriate for judicial resolution and fall within the jurisdiction of the court. This requirement ensures that courts only decide cases that involve actual legal controversies and have a legal remedy available.

The government borrows money principally by selling bonds. Bonds are debt instruments issued by the government to raise funds. When individuals or institutions purchase these bonds, they are essentially lending money to the government. The government promises to repay the borrowed amount with interest at a specified future date. This method of borrowing allows the government to finance its operations and projects without solely relying on taxes or printing more currency, which could lead to inflation. Obtaining loans from the Federal Reserve or foreign governments are also methods of borrowing, but selling bonds is the principal way the government raises funds.

The Weberian theory of bureaucracies views them as hierarchical. This means that bureaucracies are organized in a hierarchical structure with clear lines of authority and a chain of command. This structure allows for efficient decision-making and coordination within the organization. Additionally, the hierarchical structure ensures that individuals in positions of authority have the power to make and enforce decisions, which is a key characteristic of bureaucracies according to Weber's theory.

A budget is a policy document allocating burdens (taxes) and benefits (expenditures). This means that a budget is a plan that determines how much money should be spent and where it should be allocated. It involves making decisions on taxes and expenditures, determining who will bear the burden of taxes and who will receive the benefits of government spending. This explanation accurately describes the purpose and function of a budget.

Revenue losses attributable to provisions of the federal tax laws, which allow a special exemption, exclusion, or deduction are known as tax expenditures. Tax expenditures refer to the forgone revenue resulting from tax provisions that provide preferential treatment to certain individuals or groups. These provisions reduce the amount of tax that would otherwise be collected by the government, resulting in revenue losses. The term "tax expenditures" is used to highlight the fact that these provisions have a similar effect to direct government spending, as they provide financial benefits to specific taxpayers.

Social Security programs, interest on the national debt, and military pensions are categorized as uncontrollable expenditures. These are expenses that the government has little or no control over because they are determined by existing laws and obligations. Unlike discretionary expenditures, which can be adjusted or cut by policymakers, uncontrollable expenditures are mandatory and must be funded regardless of the government's budgetary decisions. Therefore, these programs and obligations fall under the category of uncontrollable expenditures.

The Supreme Court does not have the function of enforcing the orders of state regulatory agencies. The Court's main functions include resolving conflicts among states, maintaining national supremacy in law, and ensuring uniformity in interpretations of laws. However, enforcing the orders of state regulatory agencies is not one of its functions.

The federal civil service is criticized for making it extremely difficult to fire incompetents. This implies that there may be a lack of accountability and efficiency within the system.