Polityka Gospodarcza - Egzamin

Deflacja oznacza spadek ogólnego poziomu cen, co oznacza, że towary i usługi stają się tańsze. Może to prowadzić do tzw. pułapki płynności, gdzie konsumenci odkładają zakupy w oczekiwaniu na dalsze obniżki cen, co z kolei prowadzi do spowolnienia gospodarczego i wysokiego bezrobocia. Dodatkowo, deflacja może prowadzić do ujemnej stopy procentowej, co oznacza, że banki mogą obciążać klientów za przechowywanie ich pieniędzy, co z kolei wpływa na spadek siły nabywczej pieniądza.

The question asks for representatives of classical economics. Adam Smith and J.B. Say are both considered key figures in classical economics. Adam Smith is known for his book "The Wealth of Nations" and his ideas on free markets and the division of labor. J.B. Say is known for his law of markets, which states that supply creates its own demand. J.M. Keynes, on the other hand, is associated with Keynesian economics, which is a different economic theory. F. Quesnay is associated with the physiocratic school of thought, which is also different from classical economics.

The correct answer is that the Laffer Curve illustrates the relationship between tax burdens and budgetary incomes and is used to demonstrate that an increase in tax burden beyond a certain level can lead to a decrease in budgetary revenues.

The correct answer includes two factors that are considered when determining the Polish GDP: the income of Polish subsidiaries of foreign corporations and government expenditures on domestic investments. These factors contribute to the overall economic activity and output within the country, reflecting the performance and growth of the Polish economy.

The natural interest rate refers to the optimal price of money that ensures economic stability and prevents inflation. It is the rate at which the economy is in equilibrium, with no excess demand or supply of money. This rate is determined by various factors such as the level of productivity, savings, and investment in the economy. When the actual market price of money is below the natural interest rate, it stimulates economic activity, and when it is above the natural interest rate, it slows down economic activity. Therefore, the natural interest rate plays a crucial role in maintaining a stable and non-inflationary economy.

The correct answer is "Wzrost kosztów całkowitych, gdy produkcja rośnie o jednostkę." This answer refers to the concept of marginal cost, which is the increase in total cost when production increases by one unit. It reflects the additional cost incurred for producing an additional unit of output. This concept is important in decision-making processes, as it helps determine the optimal level of production and pricing strategies.

The correct answer is "Przyjmowaniu od banków krótkoterminowych depozytów" and "Udzielaniu kredytu lombardowego". This is because central banks engage in credit and deposit operations to manage the money supply and influence interest rates in the economy. By accepting short-term deposits from banks, the central bank can absorb excess liquidity and reduce inflationary pressures. On the other hand, by providing Lombard credit, the central bank can lend money to commercial banks against collateral, ensuring liquidity in the banking system and stabilizing financial markets.

The statement is true because according to the Kaldor-Hicks criterion, a change in a situation is considered an improvement if the benefits to those who gain from the change outweigh the losses to those who are harmed by it. Additionally, pure public goods are goods that are non-rivalrous in consumption, meaning that one person's consumption of the good does not reduce the amount available for others to consume.

F.A. von Hayek był przedstawicielem monetarystów.
Autorem dzieła "Ogólna Teoria Zatrudnienia, Procentu i Pieniądza” był John Maynard Keynes.

The given answer includes three instruments of international trade policy: kontyngenty (quotas), cła (tariffs), and bariery pozataryfowe (non-tariff barriers). Kontyngenty refer to restrictions on the quantity or value of goods that can be imported or exported. Cła are taxes imposed on imported or exported goods, which can increase their price and make them less competitive. Bariery pozataryfowe are various regulations and measures, such as licensing requirements or technical standards, that can hinder international trade. These instruments are commonly used by countries to protect domestic industries, regulate trade flows, and maintain a balance of trade.

Handlowe spółki osobowe are a type of business entity in Poland. They include spółki jawne (general partnerships) and spółki komandytowo-akcyjne (limited partnerships with shares). Spółki jawne are characterized by the joint and several liability of all partners for the company's debts and obligations. Spółki komandytowo-akcyjne, on the other hand, have two types of partners: general partners who have unlimited liability, and limited partners who have liability limited to their capital contributions. Therefore, both spółki jawne and spółki komandytowo-akcyjne are considered handlowe spółki osobowe.

Autorem "Drogi do Zniewolenia" był F.A. von Hayek.
Autorem prawa rynków (zwanego również prawem Saya) był J.B. Say.
Autorem teorii kosztów komparatywnych był David Ricardo.

In the Bretton Woods system, the correct answer states that the dollar was exchanged by the Federal Reserve according to a fixed parity at the request of the central banks of participating countries, and the currencies of participating countries were exchanged for dollars at a fixed rate. This means that the value of the dollar was determined by the Federal Reserve and the exchange rate between currencies and dollars was fixed. The central banks could request the exchange of their currencies for dollars at the established rate.

The Fizjokraci were against state intervention in the economy and advocated for a single tax on land income.

The explanation for the given answer is that in a system of variable exchange rates, the currency exchange rate is determined by the demand and supply in the foreign exchange market. When there is high demand for a currency, its value increases, and when there is high supply, its value decreases. Additionally, the level of inflation in a country also affects the exchange rate of its currency. If a country has high inflation, the value of its currency may decrease. Therefore, both the demand and supply in the foreign exchange market and the level of inflation in a country influence the exchange rate of its currency.

To join the Eurozone, a country must meet the convergence criteria in terms of the level of budget deficit, public debt, and inflation. This means that the country's budget deficit should be kept under control, the level of public debt should be sustainable, and inflation should be low and stable. These criteria are important to ensure the stability and economic soundness of the Eurozone as a whole.

Przezornościowy popyt na pieniądz to dążenie do posiadania pieniądza w celu finansowania wydatków nieprzewidzianych.
Do pomiaru inflacji najczęściej wykorzystywany jest indeks cen towarów konsumpcyjnych (CPI).

The budget deficit can be covered by selling government securities on the domestic or foreign market, collecting tax revenues, and generating income from privatization. These measures provide additional funds to the government, helping to bridge the gap between expenditures and revenues. Selling government securities allows the government to borrow money from investors, while tax revenues and income from privatization contribute to the government's income. By utilizing these sources of funding, the government can address the budget deficit and maintain fiscal stability.

The correct answer is "Udzielany jest przez bank centralny pod zastaw skarbowych papierów wartościowych" and "Służy pokrywaniu krótkookresowych niedoborów płynności banków komercyjnych." This means that the Lombard credit is provided by the central bank against the collateral of treasury securities and is used to cover short-term liquidity shortages of commercial banks.

Inflacja krocząca to inflacja w granicach 5-10% rocznie.

The correct answer is Klub Paryski and Klub Londyński. These two institutions, along with Klub Waszyngtoński and Klub Tokijski, are known as creditor clubs. They are groups of financial institutions that come together to negotiate and restructure the debts of countries or other borrowers. Klub Paryski, also known as the Paris Club, focuses on debts owed by developing countries, while Klub Londyński, or the London Club, deals with debts of emerging market economies. These clubs play a crucial role in coordinating debt relief and restructuring efforts, helping to alleviate financial burdens for debtor nations.

The representatives of mercantilism believed that wealth was synonymous with precious metals such as gold and silver. They also favored having a positive trade balance, meaning that a country should export more than it imports. Additionally, they implemented economic protectionism policies to protect domestic industries and maintain a favorable trade position.

Ekonomia pozytywna ma za zadanie wyjaśnianie zjawisk ekonomicznych, jest oparta na obiektywnej wiedzy o rzeczywistości.
Stochastyczność - czyli statystyczność praw ekonomicznych oznacza, że prawa te przejawiają się w dużej liczbie zjawisk, lecz w poszczególnych przypadkach mogą wystąpić odstępstwa od danej reguły.

The correct answer is "Strategię bezpośredniego celu inflacyjnego" because the National Bank of Poland (NBP) implements a monetary policy that aims to directly target inflation. This means that the NBP focuses on controlling and managing inflation levels in order to maintain price stability and promote sustainable economic growth. By setting interest rates and using other monetary tools, the NBP aims to keep inflation within a target range determined by the government or central bank. This strategy is commonly used by central banks around the world to ensure price stability and support the overall economy.

The representatives of mercantilism believed that wealth was synonymous with precious metals, particularly gold and silver. They also advocated for an active economic policy by the state, which involved promoting exports, limiting imports, and accumulating precious metals through trade. This approach aimed to increase the wealth and power of the nation.

The correct answer includes "Pieniądz gotówkowy w obiegu" (cash in circulation) and "Rezerwy gotówkowe banków komercyjnych trzymane w banku centralnym" (cash reserves held by commercial banks in the central bank). These two components make up the monetary base or M0, which represents the most liquid form of money in the economy. Cash in circulation refers to physical currency that is used for transactions, while cash reserves held by commercial banks in the central bank are the funds that banks keep to meet their reserve requirements and to facilitate interbank transactions.

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A bank with its headquarters in Poland can be established in the form of a cooperative (as a cooperative bank) or in the form of a joint-stock company. Both forms of organization are legally recognized and commonly used for banks in Poland.

The correct answer includes the terms "Kartel, Trust, Syndykat." These terms refer to different forms of monopolistic agreements or groupings. A kartel is a group of businesses that collude to control prices and eliminate competition. A trust is a form of monopoly where multiple companies transfer their shares to a single board of trustees, effectively consolidating control. A syndicate is a group of businesses or individuals that come together to control a specific market or industry. These three terms all represent different types of monopolistic agreements or groupings.

Autorem "Tablic Ekonomicznych" był François Quesnay.
Zwolennikami bulionizmu byli merkantyliści.

Moral hazard (inaczej pokusa nadużycia) to teza mówiąca o tym, że podmiot chroniony przed ryzykiem może zachowywać się inaczej niż gdyby był w pełni eksponowany na ryzyko, jest to efekt nieponoszenia konsekwencji swoich działań.
Negatywne efekty zewnętrzne – środowisko, zanieczyszczenie, hałas.

The correct answer is "Emisję obligacji skarbowych" and "Przychody z prywatyzacji". These two options suggest possible ways to finance a budget deficit. "Emisję obligacji skarbowych" refers to issuing government bonds, which are debt securities that the government can sell to investors to raise funds. "Przychody z prywatyzacji" refers to the revenue generated from privatization, which is the process of transferring ownership of state-owned assets to private individuals or entities. Both of these methods can be used to generate additional income to cover the budget deficit.

Robert Mundell was one of the authors of the concept of an optimal currency area. He was a Canadian economist who won the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1999 for his analysis of monetary and fiscal policy under different exchange rate regimes. Mundell's work emphasized the importance of factors such as labor mobility, price and wage flexibility, and fiscal integration in determining the suitability of a region or group of countries to share a common currency. His contributions have had a significant impact on the understanding of optimal currency areas and the design of monetary unions.

Komercjalizacja przedsiębiorstwa państwowego oznacza jego przekształcenie w spółkę kapitałową prawa handlowego na podstawie aktu Ministra Skarbu Państwa. Jest to proces, w którym przedsiębiorstwo państwowe staje się samodzielnie działającą jednostką gospodarczą, z własnym kapitałem i zarządem. Przekształcenie to pozwala na większą elastyczność działania przedsiębiorstwa, umożliwiając mu podejmowanie decyzji biznesowych i korzystanie z mechanizmów rynkowych. Akt Ministra Skarbu Państwa jest niezbędny, aby formalnie uregulować proces przekształcenia i przekazać kontrolę nad przedsiębiorstwem z państwa na spółkę kapitałową.

Inflation "pushed by costs" occurs when taxes and minimum wages increase. This means that as taxes and minimum wages rise, the costs of production for businesses also increase. This leads to higher prices for goods and services, causing inflation. The increase in taxes and minimum wages directly affects the costs of production and ultimately contributes to inflation.

The correct answer includes the theory of sunspots by W.S. Jevons and psychological concepts. The theory of sunspots suggests that changes in solar activity can affect economic cycles. Psychological concepts refer to theories that explain economic fluctuations based on human behavior and emotions. Both of these theories fall under the category of exogenous theories of the business cycle, which focus on external factors that influence economic fluctuations.

The correct answer is the combination of "Swobodnym przepływem czynników produkcji", "Jednolitą polityką celną", and "Swobodnym przepływem towarów i usług". This is because the European common market is characterized by the free movement of production factors, such as labor and capital, which allows for greater efficiency and economic integration. Additionally, there is a unified customs policy, which eliminates trade barriers and promotes the flow of goods and services between member countries.

Forward transactions are real, non-standardized transactions conducted outside the exchange.

According to Saya's law, there should not be overproduction and a lack of demand because the income of the owners of production factors is spent entirely on the purchase of goods and services produced. This means that the production of goods (supply) generates effective demand, which ensures that there is no excess supply or shortage of demand.

The correct answer is "Banków komercyjnych" because commercial banks play a crucial role in the implementation of monetary policy by conducting credit and deposit operations. Through these operations, commercial banks can influence the money supply, interest rates, and overall liquidity in the economy. The National Bank of Poland (NBP) relies on commercial banks to carry out these operations and achieve its monetary policy objectives. Therefore, the initiative for conducting credit and deposit operations lies with commercial banks.

Tzw. bezrobocie naturalne obejmuje m.in. bezrobocie strukturalne i frykcyjne.
Wynikiem niedostatecznego popytu globalnego jest bezrobocie w ujęciu Keynesowskim.

The correct answer explains that from an economic point of view, the demand for labor refers to the number of people who are capable of working and for whom there is a demand at a given wage and within a specific timeframe from employers. It also states that the demand for labor depends on the flexibility of labor laws.

The correct answer is "Zniesieniem ograniczeń w handlu między państwami tworzącymi strefę." This is because the characteristic of a common trade area is the elimination of trade barriers between the member countries. This means that there are no restrictions or limitations on the movement of goods and services between the countries within the trade area.

The correct answer is "Stopa wyznaczająca m.in. rentowność bonów pieniężnych emitowanych przez NBP" because it refers to the interest rate that determines the profitability of money market bonds issued by the National Bank of Poland (NBP). This answer aligns with the definition provided in the question.

Sprawować nadzór nad rynkiem finansowym, w tym nad bankami komercyjnymi może tylko Komisja Nadzoru Finansowego.

The correct answer is "Parytet obowiązujący w wymianie walut przez banki centralne, Brak możliwości wymiany dla obywateli." This means that the gold-exchange system establishes a fixed exchange rate for currency exchange between central banks, but it does not allow for individual citizens to exchange their currency for gold.

Zasób pieniądza wielkiej mocy oznacza się jako Agregat M0.
Zależność między stawką podatkową a dochodami budżetowymi obrazuje krzywa Laffera.

The correct answer is "Sprzedaży lub kupnie papierów wartościowych" and "Emisji papierów wartościowych". This is because open market operations refer to the buying and selling of securities by the central bank. By engaging in these operations, the central bank can influence the money supply and interest rates in the economy. Selling or buying securities helps to remove or inject liquidity into the financial system, while issuing securities can also have an impact on the money supply.

The correct answer is "Cykliczność rozwoju gospodarczego" (Cyclical nature of economic development). This refers to the recurring pattern of economic booms and busts, where periods of economic growth are followed by periods of recession or contraction. This cyclicality is a characteristic of market economies and can be attributed to various factors such as changes in consumer spending, investment, and overall business confidence.

According to John Maynard Keynes, it is possible for an economy to achieve equilibrium even with incomplete employment. This means that there can be a situation where there is still some level of unemployment, but the economy can still be in a stable state. Additionally, Keynes believed that the government should actively implement counter-cyclical fiscal policies to stabilize the economy. This means that during periods of recession, the government should increase spending and reduce taxes to stimulate economic growth, while during periods of inflation, the government should decrease spending and increase taxes to cool down the economy.

Spółki europejskie and Spółki z o.o. are both types of capital companies. Spółki europejskie refers to European companies, which are established and governed by European Union law. Spółki z o.o. refers to limited liability companies, which are a common form of business entity in many countries, including Poland. Both types of companies have distinct legal structures and provide limited liability protection to their shareholders.

The correct answer is a combination of three principles of ordoliberalism: economic freedom, monetary equilibrium, and full employment policy. Ordoliberalism advocates for a free market economy with minimal government intervention, ensuring that prices are determined through competition. It also emphasizes the importance of maintaining stable prices and a balanced money supply to prevent inflation or deflation. Additionally, ordoliberalism promotes policies that aim to achieve full employment, ensuring that everyone who desires work can find suitable employment opportunities. These three principles form the foundation of ordoliberal economic theory.

The correct answers state that an increase in the budget deficit leads to an increase in public debt, and an increase in public debt leads to intergenerational transfer of resources. This means that when the budget deficit increases, the government needs to borrow more money to cover the shortfall, which in turn increases the overall public debt. The increase in public debt can have long-term implications as future generations may be burdened with the responsibility of repaying the debt and financing the government's spending.

The correct answer includes two conditions for the "golden share" according to the case law of the European Court of Human Rights. These conditions are the necessity to protect the interest or public security of the state and the necessity to ensure subsequent judicial control of the relevant decision of the state authority.

Operacje otwartego rynku są jednym ze sposobów, którymi Narodowy Bank Polski (NBP) może wpływać na politykę pieniężną. W ramach tych operacji, NBP może sprzedawać lub kupować papierów wartościowych lub dewiz, co ma wpływ na podaż pieniądza na rynku. Dodatkowo, NBP może emitować własne papierów dłużne, które również mogą wpływać na politykę pieniężną. Te działania mają na celu regulowanie stóp procentowych, stabilizację rynku finansowego i kontrolowanie inflacji.

Futures transactions are conducted on an exchange, meaning that they take place through a centralized marketplace where buyers and sellers can come together to trade these financial contracts. These transactions are also standardized, meaning that the terms and conditions of the futures contract are predetermined and uniform for all participants. Lastly, futures transactions are considered to be "unreal" or "notional" in nature, as they involve the agreement to buy or sell an asset at a future date, rather than the immediate exchange of the underlying asset itself.

The correct answer is "Obrazuje odwrotną zależność między inflacją a bezrobociem". The Phillips curve illustrates the inverse relationship between inflation and unemployment. According to monetarists, in the long run, the Phillips curve has a vertical shape, indicating that there is no trade-off between inflation and unemployment in the long term.

Europejski System Banków Centralnych ma trzy główne zadania. Pierwszym z nich jest określanie i realizacja polityki pieniężnej w ramach strefy euro. Oznacza to, że ECB podejmuje decyzje dotyczące stóp procentowych, dostępności kredytu i innych instrumentów mających wpływ na podaż pieniądza w strefie euro. Drugim zadaniem jest dokonywanie operacji walutowych zgodnie z zasadami wspólnej polityki pieniężnej. ECB może interweniować na rynkach walutowych w celu utrzymania stabilności kursu euro. Trzecim zadaniem jest prowadzenie polityki emisyjnej w odniesieniu do euro, czyli kontrolowanie ilości i jakości banknotów i monet w obiegu.

Classical unemployment can occur in certain sectors of the economy due to natural causes. It can also be a result of maintaining real minimum wages at a high level. Additionally, it can be caused by fluctuations in global demand. Furthermore, it can be a consequence of actions taken by the legislature or trade unions.

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Deprecjacja waluty krajowej oznacza obniżenie jej wartości w stosunku do innych walut. Poprawa opłacalności eksportu jest wynikiem tego, że produkty eksportowe stają się tańsze dla zagranicznych nabywców, co może zwiększyć popyt na nie i przyczynić się do wzrostu eksportu. Wzrost cen towarów importowanych wynika z tego, że importowane produkty stają się droższe, ponieważ za jednostkę waluty krajowej można nabyć mniej jednostek obcej waluty.

The correct answer is "Transakcja równoległa, Instytucja ubezpieczeniowa." A parallel transaction refers to a simultaneous transaction that is carried out to offset the risk of another transaction. It involves taking an opposite position in a related asset or security to minimize potential losses. An insurance institution, on the other hand, refers to an organization that provides insurance coverage and risk management services to individuals or businesses. Both of these options relate to hedging, which is a strategy used to mitigate financial risks.

Inflation is the increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. Demand-pull inflation occurs when there is an increase in demand for goods and services, leading to an increase in prices. In this case, two factors contribute to demand-pull inflation: the increase in wages forced by strong labor unions and the increase in prices of raw materials used in production. Both of these factors lead to an increase in production costs, which are then passed on to consumers in the form of higher prices. Therefore, these two factors can be considered as causes of demand-pull inflation.

Inflation can lead to a decrease in the tendency to save and a flight from money because as prices rise, the value of money decreases, making it less attractive to hold onto. This can result in individuals spending more and saving less. Additionally, inflation can also lead to an increase in the tax burden, particularly in a progressive tax system where tax rates increase with income. As prices rise, individuals may find themselves in higher tax brackets, leading to a higher tax burden and potentially reducing their ability to save.

The correct answer is "Obiektywne, Żywiołowe, Statystyczne." Economic laws are objective because they are based on facts and evidence rather than personal opinions or biases. They are also dynamic and spontaneous, which can be described as "żywiołowe." Additionally, economic laws often involve statistical analysis and rely on data to make predictions and draw conclusions, making them "statystyczne."

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The correct answers state that the formation of monocultures can be a negative consequence of specialization in international trade and that the balance of payments consists of the balance of current, capital, and compensatory transactions. Monocultures can lead to a lack of biodiversity and increased vulnerability to pests and diseases. The balance of payments is a record of all economic transactions between a country and the rest of the world, including imports, exports, and financial flows. These explanations align with economic principles and concepts.

Europejski Bank Centralny ma siedzibę we Frankfurcie nad Menem.

The given answer is correct because it accurately identifies two true statements from the options provided. F.A. von Hayek, a representative of neoliberalism, criticized models based on central planning in both the economic and social spheres. Additionally, representatives of supply-side economics advocated for the creation of favorable conditions for investment, including the reduction of tax burdens.

Inflation is the result of an imbalance between the money supply and the total value of goods and services in the market. It is the phenomenon of rising prices measured by the consumer basket. Inflation leads to the depreciation of money.

In a fixed exchange rate system, the value of a currency is determined by the demand and supply in the foreign exchange market. If there is an excess supply of the currency, the central bank may choose to devalue the currency by reducing its value relative to other currencies. This can help to increase the competitiveness of the country's exports and stimulate economic growth. Additionally, in a fixed exchange rate system, the central bank is responsible for maintaining the exchange rate and may intervene in the foreign exchange market to stabilize the currency's value. Therefore, it is possible for the currency to be devalued and for the central bank to intervene in the foreign exchange market.

The correct answer is a combination of the characteristics that define a common market. These characteristics include a common customs policy towards third countries, the elimination of trade restrictions between member states, and the free movement of factors of production. These features create a unified market where goods, services, capital, and labor can move freely, promoting economic integration and cooperation among member states.

The "automatyzm złota" refers to the automatic restoration of balance in the payment balances of countries over time. It allowed central banks to request the exchange of dollars for gold at a fixed parity from the Federal Reserve. However, this system resulted in deflationary crises.

The correct answer suggests that the phenomenon of crowding out private investment and expenditure can be a result of loose fiscal policy by the government leading to an increase in budget deficit. It also states that it is a derivative of the increase in interest rates, which is a result of increased public needs and borrowing requirements of the state.

In the gold standard system, each country's government determined the gold parity, meaning they set the exchange rate between their currency and a certain amount of gold. This ensured that the currency had a fixed value in terms of gold. Additionally, the money that was issued by the government had to be backed by gold reserves, meaning that there was a physical amount of gold held as a guarantee for the value of the currency. These two factors, the government determining the gold parity and the money being backed by gold reserves, were key features of the gold standard system.

Przystąpienie do strefy Euro oznacza rezygnację z autonomicznej polityki fiskalnej i monetarnej. Oznacza to, że państwo przystępujące do Euro nie może już samodzielnie kontrolować swojej polityki fiskalnej, czyli nie może samodzielnie decydować o wydatkach publicznych, podatkach i długu publicznym. Ponadto, nie może również samodzielnie kontrolować polityki monetarnej, czyli nie może samodzielnie decydować o stóp procentowych i ilości pieniądza w obiegu. Zamiast tego, te decyzje są podejmowane przez Europejski Bank Centralny. Likwidacja NBP nie jest konieczna przy przystąpieniu do strefy Euro, więc nie jest to poprawna odpowiedź.

The correct answer is that a currency exchange rate can be fixed, rigid, fluid, or based on a parity system. A fixed exchange rate means that the value of a currency is set by the government and remains constant. A rigid exchange rate is also set by the government but allows for small fluctuations within a certain range. A fluid exchange rate fluctuates freely based on supply and demand in the market. A parity system ties the value of a currency to another currency or a fixed value, maintaining a stable exchange rate.

Opinia, że instrumenty fiskalne działają z opóźnieniem, a ich skutki mogą wystąpić już w zmienionych warunkach gospodarczych charakterystyczna jest dla przedstawicieli neoliberalizmu.

The correct answer is "Oddanie przedsiębiorstwa do odpłatnego korzystania spółce z udziałem jego pracowników (leasing pracowniczy), Wniesienie przedsiębiorstwa do nowo założonej spółki." This is because direct privatization involves either leasing the company to a company with the participation of its employees or transferring it to a newly established company. These options allow for the transfer of ownership and control of the enterprise from the state to private entities.

According to J. M. Keynes, the economy is in equilibrium when investments are equal to savings and when demand creates supply. This means that there is a balance between the amount of money being invested and the amount of money being saved, and that the demand for goods and services is driving the production and supply of those goods and services. This concept is based on the idea that economic stability and growth depend on the balance between spending and saving, and the relationship between demand and supply.

When the National Bank of Poland (NBP) implements an expansionary monetary policy aimed at increasing the money supply and improving liquidity in the interbank market, it lowers the Lombard and rediscount credit rates. This encourages banks to borrow more from the central bank, increasing the availability of credit in the economy. Additionally, the NBP engages in open market operations by purchasing securities on the open market. This increases the demand for these securities, which in turn increases their prices and lowers their yields. This helps to inject liquidity into the market and stimulate economic activity.

According to monetarists, the relationship between unemployment and inflation is only short-term, meaning that any changes in one variable will only have a temporary effect on the other. They believe that the causes of inflation lie in the real economy, rather than being solely influenced by monetary factors. Additionally, they argue that the growth of money supply should be correlated with the growth of GDP, suggesting that an increase in money supply should be proportional to the increase in economic output.

The correct answer includes two true statements. The first statement states that the current account balance is one of the elements of a country's balance of payments. The second statement states that NFI (Non-Financial Institutions) were part of a program of universal privatization. Both statements are true and provide accurate information.

Natural unemployment, according to classical economists such as M. Friedman, is caused by the incorrect flow of information about job vacancies and available workforce, imperfect labor mobility, and insufficient wage flexibility. This means that when there is a lack of accurate information about job openings and available workers, it becomes difficult for the labor market to efficiently match workers with jobs. Additionally, if workers are unable to easily move between different jobs or regions, it can contribute to higher levels of unemployment. Finally, if wages are inflexible and do not adjust to market conditions, it can create imbalances in the labor market and lead to higher unemployment rates.

The correct answer is "Wykup bonów pieniężnych od banków komercyjnych." This is because when the central bank buys money market instruments (such as bonds) from commercial banks, it injects liquidity into the banking system. This increases the reserves of commercial banks, allowing them to lend more to businesses and individuals. This action stimulates economic activity and is a form of expansionary monetary policy. Emisja przez bank centralny obligacji (issuing bonds by the central bank) does not directly affect the reserves of commercial banks and is not considered a form of monetary operation. Podwyższenie stopy rezerw obowiązkowych (raising reserve requirements) and sprzedaż papierów wartościowych przez NBP (selling securities by the central bank) are both contractionary monetary policy measures, which reduce the reserves of commercial banks and restrict lending.

The correct answer is the occurrence of negative external costs and the limitation of free competition due to monopolization processes. In a market economy, negative external costs refer to the costs imposed on society as a whole due to the production or consumption of goods or services. This can include environmental pollution, health hazards, or other social costs that are not accounted for by the market. The limitation of free competition through monopolization processes refers to the concentration of market power in the hands of a few dominant firms, which can lead to higher prices, reduced choices for consumers, and hinder innovation and efficiency in the market.

The correct answer suggests that Keynesian unemployment is associated with cyclical declines in global demand and has an involuntary nature. This means that it occurs as a result of economic downturns and is not a voluntary choice made by individuals.

Indirect privatization refers to the commercialization of state-owned enterprises and the sale of shares in a single-person state treasury company through a public offer. This means that the state-owned enterprise is transformed into a commercial entity and its shares are sold to the public through a public offering. This process allows for the involvement of private investors and the transfer of ownership from the state to the private sector. Additionally, it ensures transparency and fair competition through the public offering process.

The factors that can influence the variable exchange rate include the level of domestic prices of goods and services, the level of interest rates for deposits and loans, the growth of real incomes of the population, and expectations regarding the future exchange rate. These factors can affect the supply and demand for a currency, leading to fluctuations in its value relative to other currencies.

Restrykcyjna polityka pieniężna, also known as a "tight money policy," is implemented through various measures to control inflation and reduce economic activity. One way to achieve this is by increasing the required reserve ratio, which means banks are required to hold a higher percentage of their deposits as reserves, limiting the amount of money available for lending. Another measure is raising interest rates, which makes borrowing more expensive and reduces spending. Additionally, selling or issuing securities can also help remove money from circulation and restrict credit availability. Overall, these actions aim to tighten the money supply and reduce economic growth.