Quiz Fisiologia Del Comportamento, Carslon, III Ed. (2014)

Nell’ippocampo e nel bulbo olfattivo del cervello adulto può ancora verificarsi neurogenesi con effetti legati per esempio all’apprendimento associativo.

L’area fusiforme si attiva anche nel riconoscimento di stimoli per cui possiamo diventare, nel tempo, esperti (es.: macchine). Stesso problema di riconoscimento (quindi, anche per gli oggetti oltre che per i volti) in caso di lesione di quest’area (agnosia per gli oggetti).

The statement is true because it states that learning is the way in which the environment is able to influence our behavior. It also mentions that experiences are able to modify our central nervous system by altering the neural circuits involved in perception and action. This aligns with the commonly accepted understanding of learning as a process of acquiring knowledge or skills through experiences and environmental influences.

Perceptual learning refers to the ability to recognize stimuli that have been previously perceived and experienced. It involves categorizing objects and situations and is possible for each sensory modality. It is likely that there are changes in the sensory associative cortex, such as the recall of visual stimuli. Therefore, the statement "Apprendimento percettivo (capacità di riconoscere stimoli già percepiti ed esperiti in precedenza, categorizzazione di oggetti e situazioni, possibile per ciascuna modalità sensoriale, probabili cambiamenti nella corteccia associativa sensoriale, per esempio ricordo di stimoli visivi)" is true.

L-DOPA is a precursor to dopamine and can cross the blood-brain barrier, unlike dopamine itself. This allows L-DOPA to facilitate the synthesis of dopamine in the brain. On the other hand, AMPT inhibits the synthesis of both dopamine and noradrenaline. Therefore, the statement that L-DOPA facilitates dopamine synthesis and AMPT inhibits dopamine and noradrenaline synthesis is true.

Le regioni fondamentali sono all’interno del solco intraparietale. Solco intraparietale, zona terminale della via dorsale della corteccia visiva associativa, è implicata nella percezione di localizzazione, attenzione visiva e controllo del movimento di occhi e mani.

The statement is true. Aphasia refers to difficulties in producing or understanding language that are not caused by hearing loss or simple motor deficits. It is indeed caused by a brain lesion.

Intense electrical stimulations of the hippocampal formation circuits can induce long-term potentiation, which is a long-term increase in excitatory post-synaptic potentials in this system. This statement is true because it accurately describes the process of long-term potentiation resulting from intense electrical stimulation in the hippocampal formation circuits.

The strengthening of synapses occurs when neurotransmitter molecules released from the presynaptic terminal bind to the postsynaptic receptors of a dendritic spine that is already depolarized. This depolarization is called a dendritic spike and is typically characterized by a high activation threshold, which is a characteristic of certain types of pyramidal cells. If the dendritic spine is not depolarized, the effect of the neurotransmitter binding will not result in synaptic strengthening. Therefore, the statement "Il rafforzamento delle sinapsi si verifica quando le molecole di neurotrasmettitore liberate dal terminale pre-sinaptico si legano con i recettori post-sinaptici di una spina dendritica già depolarizzata" is true.

Rafforzamento a lungo termine (anche di sinapsi più «deboli» se attive in quel momento)

L’area frontale inferiore di sinistra possiede forti connessioni con le aree motorie coinvolte nel linguaggio.

The explanation for the given correct answer is that serotonina (5-HT) is indeed involved in the regulation of mood, appetite, sleep, arousal, and pain. It is synthesized from the precursor tryptophan and produced in specific regions of the brain, such as the dorsal and medial raphe nuclei. Serotonin is released through axonal varicosities. Additionally, drugs that inhibit the reuptake of serotonin, like Fluoxetine (Prozac), are commonly used as antidepressants. Therefore, the statement "Serotonina (5-HT): Regolazione dell'umore, appetito, sonno, arousal e del dolore" is true.

The given statement is true. It states that the oval window is an opening in the bone surrounding the cochlea, which reveals the presence of a membrane against which the base of the stapes presses, transmitting sound vibrations to the fluid in the cochlea.

Una stimolazione a bassa frequenza può indurre depressione a lungo termine, funzionale per favorire il rafforzamento di alcuni circuiti e l’indebolimento di altri.
La depressione a lungo termine causa una riduzione dei recettori AMPA (che invece aumentano nel caso di potenziamento a lungo termine nei dendriti), favorita dall’attivazione dei recettori NMDA a causa di un modesto ma prolungato incremento del calcio nella cellula (nel caso di potenziamento a lungo termine il calcio entra in maniera molto maggiore), Infatti, esistono, due tipi diversi di recettori NMDA che gestiscono i due tipi di plasticità (entrata lenta del calcio, nel caso della depressione a lungo termine; entrata più vigorosa del calcio nel caso del potenziamento a lungo termine).

The statement is true because it states that there are nine different types of serotonin receptors, including metabotropic receptors, ionotropic receptors, and autoreceptors. This suggests that serotonin can bind to different types of receptors in the body, which can have various effects on neurotransmission and physiological processes.

The given statement is true. The capacity to maintain information in memory for a few seconds in order to compare it with other information is a characteristic of both short-term memory and working memory. This ability is supported by activities in regions such as the right hemisphere's prefrontal regions and the superior longitudinal fasciculus, which is a bundle of fibers connecting frontal and parietal areas and facilitating the transmission and exchange of information, particularly spatial information in short-term memory.

The given answer "True" is correct because the statement accurately describes the Organo del corti, the cellula ciliata, and the cellula di Deiters, which are all components of the auditory system. The Organo del corti is the sensory organ on the basilar membrane that contains the ciliated auditory cells. The cellula ciliata is the receptor cell of the auditory system. The cellula di Deiters is a supporting cell found in the Organo del corti that supports the ciliated auditory cells.

Afasia di Wernicke è una condizione caratterizzata da difficoltà nella comprensione del linguaggio, produzione di linguaggio fluente ma privo di significato, neologismi e scarsa consapevolezza del deficit. Ci sono anche difficoltà nel riconoscimento del linguaggio orale, nella comprensione del significato delle parole e nella capacità di esprimere i propri pensieri verbalmente.

I suoni ad alta frequenza producono la flessione della base della membrana basilare, i suoni a bassa frequenza producono la flessione dell'apice (estremità opposta). QUINDI LA FREQUENZA E' CODIFICATA ANATOMICAMENTE.

Occhio che i corpi mamillari sono dell'ipotalamo e non dell'area limbica. Fornice collega area limbica a corpi mamillari

The statement is true because after the bending of the basilar membrane, the changes in pressure of the cochlear fluid reach the round window, and its membrane moves in the opposite direction to the oval window. This movement allows for the transmission of sound waves and vibrations through the cochlea.

The given information provides a description of various structures in the brain and their functions. It states that the tegmentum contains the reticular formation, which receives sensory information and sends it to the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and spinal cord. It also mentions the periaqueductal gray matter, which is involved in the organism's response to pain. The red nucleus is described as carrying motor commands from the cortex and cerebellum to the spinal cord. Lastly, the substantia nigra is said to project to the caudate nucleus and putamen, which are involved in Parkinson's disease. Therefore, the statement is true as it accurately represents the functions of these brain structures.

Le cellule ciliate fanno sinapsi con neuroni bipolari che poi permettono la trasmissione del segnale nervoso tramite il nervo uditivo fino al cervello

Adjacent stereocilia are connected to each other at the point of attachment called an intersection plaque. Receptor potentials, produced by the movement of the bundle of stereocilia, are discharged at these plaques where ion channels are located. This statement accurately describes the connection and function of adjacent stereocilia, making the answer "True."

The given passage describes the characteristics and symptoms of "balbuzie" or stuttering. It mentions repetitions, blocks, circumlocutions, physical and motor effort, pseudo-fluency, the use of starters to promote fluency, involuntary movements during disfluencies, and avoidance behaviors. It also states that stuttering is more common at the beginning of words or phrases and that it transitions from function words (articles, prepositions, etc.) to content words (nouns, verbs, etc.) as individuals get older. The answer "True" indicates that the statement is accurate.

Diverse zone della membrana rispondono a diverse frequenze, quindi rappresentazione tonotopica in corteccia.

The explanation for the given correct answer is that the corteccia uditiva associativa is indeed a region that surrounds the primary auditory cortex. It receives input from the primary auditory cortex as well as from the dorsal and medial parts of the medial geniculate body. Additionally, it is also a region of the paracintura, which receives input from the region of the cintura and the medial geniculate body. Therefore, the statement is true.

Adenosina nel cervello (rilasciata da astrociti), a livello extracellulare, che ha poi un effetto di carattere inibitorio sull’attività neuronale (che così riesce a ristabilire le sue riserve energetiche).

Con l’età passaggio del blocco e/o della disfluenza dalle parole «funzione» (articoli, preposizioni ecc.), alle parole «contenuto» (per es. sostantivi, verbi ecc.).

The given statement is true. The ventro-lateral pre-optic area and the median pre-optic nucleus play an important role in controlling sleep. These areas are located in the brain and are involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle. They receive input from various regions of the brain and help coordinate the transitions between wakefulness and sleep. Studies have shown that damage or dysfunction in these areas can lead to sleep disturbances and disorders. Therefore, the statement is correct in stating the importance of these areas in sleep control.

The given statement is true. In the control of sleep, the ventro-lateral preoptic area and the median preoptic nucleus play an important role. These areas contain neurons that form inhibitory synaptic connections with the brain neurons responsible for arousal. The neurotransmitter GABA is involved in this inhibitory process.

The given statement suggests that stuttering can be considered as a disorder related to the correct implementation and programming of motor skills. It implies that stuttering can be seen as a dysfunctional motor learning that has been reinforced. The statement is true because stuttering is indeed characterized by disruptions in the normal flow of speech, which can be attributed to difficulties in motor planning and execution.

Esistenza anche di casi di «alessia» rispetto a stimoli visivi del linguaggio dei segni dopo lesioni cerebrali simili a quelle dell’alessia pura.

The given statement is true. Histological methods, such as fixation and sectioning of tissues, staining, and microscopic examination, are commonly used to analyze the effects of a lesion. These techniques allow researchers to study the structural changes and abnormalities in tissues caused by the lesion, providing valuable insights into the underlying pathology.

The statement is true because the somatosensory system provides information about what is happening on the surface of our body and inside it, including visceral sensations. This system includes sensory receptors in the skin, muscles, and organs that transmit signals to the brain, allowing us to perceive touch, temperature, pain, and other bodily sensations.

Nota bene: ricordiamo che le parole possono essere pronunciate e lette, indipendentemente dalla loro reale comprensione.

The explanation for the given correct answer is that the statement describes the method of stimulation called optogenetics, which involves using a genetically modified virus to insert light-sensitive ion channels into neuron membranes. These neurons can then be depolarized or hyperpolarized by applying light of an appropriate wavelength. Therefore, the statement is true.

The given statement is true. It states that the main categories of disorders that affect the nervous system include epilepsy, stroke, tumors, neurodegenerative disorders, developmental disorders, and disorders caused by infectious diseases.

The given statement is true. There are three types of nociceptors: high-threshold mechanoreceptors that respond to intense stimulation, receptors that respond to acids, extreme heat, and the presence of capsaicin, and receptors that respond to chemicals that can cause inflammation.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a procedure that detects groups of neurons activated in a synchronized manner through the magnetic field induced by their electrical activity. It utilizes systems of superconducting quantum interference devices, or SQUIDs. This statement is true because MEG does indeed use SQUIDs to measure the tiny magnetic fields generated by neuronal activity in the brain.

Danno a queste strutture causa agnosia tattile (non perdita di sensibilità tattile)!

The given statement is true. The nucleus raphe magnus, which contains serotonin-secreting neurons, projects to the gray matter of the spinal cord and is involved in the analgesic effects produced by opioids.

Il problema inverso si può risolvere attraverso l’analisi del dipolo (risoluzione del problema della stima dei sei parametri che lo caratterizzano) o attraverso tecniche di analisi distribuita della sorgente.

The given correct answer is "True". The provided information explains the different types of generalized seizures, including tonic-clonic seizures, absence seizures, and atonic seizures. It describes the characteristics of each type of seizure, such as the muscle contractions in tonic-clonic seizures and the temporary loss of muscle tone in atonic seizures. It also mentions that absence seizures are commonly observed in children and are characterized by episodes of total lack of attention that are not remembered afterwards. Overall, the explanation supports the correctness of the answer "True".

The explanation for the given correct answer is that slower brain rhythms, such as theta and delta waves, are indeed characteristic of different sleep stages. The theta rhythm is present in the early stages of sleep and is also more prevalent in certain neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson's disease. On the other hand, the delta rhythm is a slow wave rhythm that is typical of deep sleep stages (stages 3-4 NREM). Therefore, the statement that slower brain rhythms are typical of different sleep stages is true.

Partial seizures can be classified as simple or complex, depending on whether there is an alteration in consciousness. Simple partial seizures do not involve a significant change in consciousness, while complex partial seizures are characterized by an alteration in consciousness. Additionally, both simple and complex partial seizures can evolve into generalized seizures that involve the entire brain. Therefore, the statement that partial seizures can evolve into generalized cortical seizures is true.

In recent years, techniques based on the use of EEG, ECoG, fMRI, or NIRS have been developed. These techniques allow for the control of external devices, such as neuroprosthetics, or tools to improve communication in patients with specific conditions like locked-in syndrome. This statement is true because these techniques have indeed been developed and are being used for these purposes.

The given answer is true because it correctly identifies various causes of epileptic seizures, including scar tissue from head trauma, stroke, irritating effects of a growing tumor, infections, sudden withdrawal from substances like alcohol or medications, genetic factors, and idiopathic causes (which are due to unknown reasons or personal suffering). These are all recognized causes of epileptic seizures.

In this question, the statement describes the condition of "stato epilettico" where the patient experiences a series of epileptic seizures without regaining consciousness. It also mentions that these seizures can cause uncontrollable muscle movements known as convulsions. The answer "True" is correct because the statement accurately describes the characteristics of stato epilettico.

Utile per lo studio del sistema nervoso periferico da un punto di vista funzionale , principalmente utilizzato come mezzo diagnostico in clinica.

Tipo e quantità di neuroni stimolati dipende anche dalla direzione della corrente nel coil, con diversi effetti del campo magnetico indotto.

When the blood flow is interrupted, excessive presence of glutamate and subsequent chemical reactions (such as influx of sodium ions into the cell and excessive absorption of calcium ions) in the neurons' location that no longer receive nutrients will cause damage to cellular groups with cytotoxic effects, also due to the release of free radicals acting as powerful oxidizing agents. This explanation supports the statement that the answer is true.

The given statement is true. The therapy for stroke includes various approaches such as medication to dissolve blood clots, mechanical removal of blockages in blood vessels, physical therapy, and rehabilitation to promote the development of residual and compensatory abilities. Additionally, techniques like constraint-induced movement therapy and therapy based on mirror neurons can improve connections and functioning in motor areas surrounding the affected hemisphere. Moreover, brain-computer interfaces enable patients to control electronic and mechanical systems, allowing them to perform useful actions.

*corpo di Lewy; struttura circolare anomala con un nucleo denso costituito dalla proteina alfa-sinucleina; si trova nel citoplasma dei neuroni nigrostriatali dei pazienti affetti da morbo di Parkinson.
*alfa-sinucleina; proteina normalmente presente nella membrana presinaptica e apparentemente coinvolta nei meccanismi di plasticità sinaptica. L'accumulo anormale sembra causare la degenerazione neurale associata al morbo di Parkinson.

The given statement is true. The therapy for Parkinson's disease involves the administration of L-DOPA, which is able to cross the blood-brain barrier and is then converted into dopamine. Additionally, surgical interventions such as pallidotomy or interventions on the subthalamic nucleus, as well as deep brain stimulation on these nuclei, can also be used as treatment options for Parkinson's disease.

*Blood oxigen level dependent

Utilizza la radiazione ottica e la banda spettrale nel vicino infrarosso. Tramite la tecnica NIRS, l’attività cerebrale è misurata attraverso la risposta emodinamica associata al comportamento. Il fotone NIR lanciato nel tessuto biologico non lo attraversa secondo un percorso rettilineo tra sorgente e rivelatore, ma esegue un percorso variabile, a seconda del numero di eventi a cui va incontro, che si conclude con l’assorbimento del fotone da parte del tessuto o con la sua fuoriuscita dal tessuto.

The given statement is true. Alzheimer's disease is indeed associated with the degeneration of structures such as the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, neocortex (especially the frontal and temporal associative cortex, with atrophy and widening of cerebral sulci), locus coeruleus, and raphe nuclei. This degeneration leads to the characteristic symptoms of Alzheimer's disease, including memory loss and cognitive decline.

In tal caso, le cellule gliali appositamente dedicate tendono a distruggere assoni e dendriti in degenerazione, lasciando alla fine solo la presenza della placca. Inoltre, si verifica un eccessivo rilascio di glutammato con effetti tossici sulla cellula.
Saranno presenti anche matasse neurofibrillari (neuroni che contengono accumuli di proteina tau iperfosforilata, che compromette il normale trasporto di sostanze a livello intracellulare, causando, alla fine, la morte del neurone).

Nel caso in cui siano presenti quasi esclusivamente matasse neurofibrillari, sarà più probabile osservare una demenza fronto-temporale (degenerazione della corteccia frontale e temporale, con evidenti disturbi per esempio delle funzioni esecutive e del linguaggio).

The given statement is true. The risk factors mentioned, such as obesity, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, advancing age, and head trauma, are known to increase the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease. These factors have been identified through research and studies conducted on the disease. Therefore, it can be concluded that the statement is correct.

(considerando che i neuroni colinergici sono tra i primi ad essere danneggiati e sono implicati nell’attivazione corticale e nella memoria)

DETERMINA:
- Danneggiano la trasmissione normale del potenziale d’azione;
- Ampia varietà di disturbi neurologici a seconda della localizzazione delle placche;
- I sintomi della sclerosi multipla seguono spesso un andamento recidivante remittente oppure seguono un andamento progressivo.

Nella sinapsi si libera acetilcolina con conseguente depolarizzazione della membrana della fibra muscolare (potenziale di placca, più potente del normale potenziale d’azione, causa la contrazione della fibra muscolare). La depolarizzazione apre i canali per il calcio voltaggio-dipendenti, con gli ioni calcio che alla fine permettono la contrazione muscolare, permettendo alle miofibrille di estrarre energia dall’ATP presente nel citoplasma.

Both interferon beta and glatiramer acetate provide some relief for the relapsing-remitting form of multiple sclerosis, but neither treatment is able to stop the progression of the disease. Therefore, the statement "both treatments are not able to block the progression of multiple sclerosis" is true.

Il disturbo, in effetti, è conseguente alla carenza di tiamina (vitamina B1) indotta dall'alcolismo.
La Sindrome di Korsakoff talvolta si sviluppa in persone gravemente malnutrite, sottoposte a infusione endovenosa di glucosio: l'improvvisa disponibilità di glucosio per le cellule cerebrali, senza un'adeguata quantità di tiamina con cui metabolizzarlo danneggia le cellule, probabilmente a causa dell'accumulo di piruvato.

Una importante funzione del riflesso monosinaptico da stiramento riguarda il controllo della postura.

The explanation for the given correct answer is that the Chorda Tympani is a branch of the facial nerve that passes beneath the eardrum. It carries taste information from the front part of the tongue and also controls the secretion of certain salivary glands. Therefore, the statement that Chorda Tympani transports gustatory information from the anterior part of the tongue and controls salivary gland secretion is true.

*delirio, credenza chiaramente in contraddizione con la realtà;
*allucinazione, percezione di oggetti o eventi che non esistono.
Il sintomo primario della schizofrenia è il disturbo del pensiero.

The given statement is true. It states that the neuromuscular spindles initiate afferent impulses that travel along the fibers to the gray matter of the spinal cord, where they synapse with alpha motor neurons. These motor neurons innervate the extrafusal muscle fibers of the muscle, causing them to contract. This process is essential for muscle function and movement.

The statement is true because taste has an ipsilateral representation in the brain. This means that the taste receptors on one side of the tongue send signals to the same side of the brain. When different flavors are tasted, different portions of the primary gustatory insular cortex are activated.

Negli ultimi anni, realizzazione di antipsicotici atipici (clozapina, blocca i recettori D4 del nucleo accumbens), con minori effetti collaterali, che agiscono sia su sintomi positivi che negativi della schizofrenia. Gli agonisti parziali (farmaco con un'elevata affinità per un particolare recettore, ma che lo attiva meno di quanto fa il ligando normale. Serve da agonista nelle regioni di bassa concentrazione del ligando normale e da antagonista nelle regioni di alta concentrazione) della dopamina agiscono con successo su sintomi positivi e negativi della schizofrenia.

The statement is true because the olfactory epithelium is indeed the nasal tissue that lines the cribriform plate and contains the cilia of olfactory receptors. These cilia are responsible for detecting and transmitting olfactory signals to the brain, allowing us to perceive different smells.

The statement is true. The olfactory bulbs are located at the base of the brain. Each olfactory receptor cell sends an axon to the olfactory bulbs, where they form synapses with the dendrites of mitral cells. The axons of the mitral cells then carry the information to the rest of the brain.

*il carbonato di litio è utilizzato per trattare il disturbo bipolare.

Many mammals possess the vomeronasal organ, which is their response to chemical stimulations in the environment and to pheromones produced by other animals.

Quindi il risultato finale, la percezione olfattiva, dipenderà dalla diversa attività di particolari glomeruli (informazione trasmessa in modalità olfattotopica, con determinati glomeruli che trasmettono a parti specifiche della corteccia olfattiva; se sapremo quale pattern di recettori si attiva potremo prevedere anche la percezione olfattiva finale).

The given statement is true. The suggested therapies for depression include medications that inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, such as tricyclic antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). Other therapies mentioned are monoamine oxidase inhibitors, transcranial magnetic stimulation, electroconvulsive therapy, vagus nerve stimulation, exercise, and selective sleep deprivation. These treatments are commonly used in the management of depression.

The given statement is explaining the concept of the "reflex of the serrated knife," which is a reflex that occurs in response to the application of a force that tends to flex or extend the limb of an animal with decerebration rigidity. In this reflex, the resistance is replaced by a sudden release. The statement is saying that this explanation is true.

The given statement describes anxiety disorder, which is a psychological disorder characterized by tension, hyperactivity of the autonomic nervous system, expectation of imminent disaster, and continuous vigilance for danger. Therefore, the correct answer is true.

The given statement is true. Social anxiety disorder is characterized by an excessive fear of being judged by others, which leads to avoiding social situations where the person is required to perform.

The given statement is true. The ventral corticospinal tract is a pathway that originates in the motor cortex and terminates in the ventral portion of the ipsilateral spinal gray matter. It is responsible for controlling movements of the lower limbs and trunk.

The given statement is true. The corticobulbar tract is the second descending pathway of the lateral group, which projects to the brainstem and terminates in the motor nuclei of the fifth (trigeminal), seventh (facial), ninth (glossopharyngeal), tenth (vagus), eleventh (spinal accessory), and twelfth (hypoglossal) cranial nerves. This tract is responsible for controlling movements of the face, neck, tongue, and extraocular movements.

This statement is true. Tourette's syndrome is a neurological disorder characterized by involuntary tics and vocalizations, and sometimes by the compulsive utterance and repetition of obscenities. It is believed to be caused by lesions in the basal ganglia, cingulate gyrus, and prefrontal cortex, as well as autoimmune diseases.

The tratto reticolospinale is a bundle of axons that travels from the reticular formation to the gray matter of the spinal cord. It is involved in the control of muscle tone, respiration, and plays a role in walking. This statement is true because the tratto reticolospinale does indeed have these functions.

Farmaci SSRI (bloccanti specifici della ricaptazione della serotonina quindi sono agonisti serotoninergici) per DOC (disturbo ossessivo-compulsivo).

fMRI: eseguire (od immaginare) sequenze di movimenti complessi causa pattern di attivazioni specifiche in queste strutture.

The given statement describes the characteristics of autism, which is a chronic disorder that affects social interaction, communication skills, and behavior. People with autism often have difficulty forming normal social relationships, struggle with communication skills, lack imagination, and exhibit repetitive movements. Therefore, the statement is true.

- Attività più forte del sistema quando si osserva un tipo di movimento del quale si ha competenza ed esperienza;
- Esistenza di neuroni specchio «audiovisivi» che rispondono sia alla vista che al suono di determinate azioni;
- Questo sistema ci permette di comprendere un’azione che stiamo osservando perché la rappresentazione motoria di quell’azione è attiva nel nostro cervello;
- Ruolo quindi anche nel riconoscimento delle emozioni e dell’empatia.

NOTA BENE: Il lobo parietale riceve informazioni sulla localizzazione spaziale anche dal sistema somatosensoriale e dal sistema uditivo, integrando il tutto con l’informazione visiva.

ADHD is a disorder characterized by difficulty inhibiting responses, lack of sustained attention, and hyperactivity. These symptoms typically develop in childhood. The statement "Disturbo da deficit dell'attenzione/iperattività (ADHD). Disturbo caratterizzato da incapacità di inibire le risposte, mancanza di attenzione sostenuta e iperattività; i sintomi si sviluppano nell'infanzia." accurately describes the key features of ADHD, making the answer "True" correct.

The statement is true because it states that ADHD is more frequent in males and that there is strong empirical evidence indicating that family factors play an important role in determining an individual's likelihood of developing ADHD. This suggests that there is a genetic or familial component to ADHD, which is supported by research.

Con gradiente di maggiori connessioni con aree motorie per la SMA-proper (funzionalità maggiormente motoria in senso stretto) fino a presentare connessioni più importanti con aree pre-frontali per anterior pre-SMA (valenza maggiormente cognitiva; ruolo nel decision making).

The given statement is true. Disturbi da stress refers to the physiological reaction caused by perceiving a threatening situation. It triggers the fight or flight response, which is a species-specific preparatory response for attacking or fleeing. It is believed to be responsible for some of the harmful effects of stressful situations.

(per esempio, la stimolazione elettrica di aree quali SMA e pre-SMA sembra dimostrare il coinvolgimento di tali aree nella gestione della volontà di muoversi)

Effetti a lungo termine in caso di stress prolungato, con effetti sulla formazione ippocampale e conseguenti problemi mnestici. Effetti anche sulla corteccia prefrontale e sull’amigdala.

The given statement explains that post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychological disorder caused by exposure to extreme danger and stress. The symptoms of PTSD include recurring dreams or memories, which can interfere with social activities and lead to a feeling of hopelessness. Therefore, the statement is true.

The most common treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy, and the administration of SNRI (serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors). SNRI is an antidepressant medication that specifically inhibits the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine without affecting the reuptake of other neurotransmitters. This statement is true because it accurately describes the commonly used treatments for PTSD.

The given passage provides a description of narcolepsy, a neurological disorder characterized by excessive sleepiness and other symptoms such as sudden sleep attacks, cataplexy (loss of muscle tone), and sleep paralysis. It states that narcolepsy is a relatively rare disorder that is inherited but strongly influenced by unknown environmental factors. The symptoms mentioned in the passage align with the common symptoms of narcolepsy. Therefore, the answer "True" is correct.

The given answer is true because the passage states that the effectiveness of most solutions for stuttering is likely based on their ability to bypass the basal ganglia. The passage also mentions some possible solutions such as choral speech, mechanisms involving mirror neurons, and the use of tools like metronomes or external sensory signals during stuttering. Therefore, the statement is supported by the information provided in the passage.

Hanno un ruolo nella «guida» dei nuovi assoni (sprouting). In questo caso se le propaggini di un nuovo assone incontra una cellula di Schwann, allora continuerà nella sua crescita, altrimenti, verrà eliminato. N.B. : tale processo è tipico del SNP non del SNC!!

(lesioni cerebrali di circuiti del tronco encefalico)

Capillari avvolti da cellule gliali

The given statement is true. It states that there are inherited metabolic disorders such as phenylketonuria, galactosemia, and Tay-Sachs disease. Phenylketonuria is caused by the absence of an enzyme that converts the amino acid phenylalanine into tyrosine, leading to the accumulation of phenylalanine and potential brain damage if a special diet is not implemented. Galactosemia is a metabolic disorder where galactose (milk sugar) cannot be easily metabolized. Tay-Sachs disease is a fatal inherited metabolic storage disorder where the lack of enzymes in lysosomes causes the accumulation of waste products and swelling of brain cells.

The given statement is true. The extrapyramidal system is a collection of pathways and nerve centers that directly or indirectly influence motor actions, controlling instinctive reactions and adapting them to voluntary movement. It works in coordination with the pyramidal system to ensure proper motor function.

- ​Rappresentazione somatotopica nelle connessioni tra area motoria e gangli della base;
- Nel circuito che dalla corteccia va ai gangli della base le connessioni possono essere di natura sia eccitatoria (glutammato) che inibitoria (GABA);
- In generale il nucleo caudato ed il putamen ricevono connessioni eccitatorie dalla corteccia cerebrale con connessioni inibitorie inviate poi al globo pallido interno ed esterno;
- Il nucleo subtalamico riceve segnali eccitatori dalla corteccia e li invia al globo pallido pars interna.

Effetti collaterali: discinesie e distonie, posture e movimenti involontari causati da eccessiva stimolazione dei recettori dopaminergici dei gangli della base.
L-DOPA utile fino ad un certo livello della degenerazione neuronale.

L’acetilcolina è forse il più importante neurotrasmettitore nella gestione e nel controllo dell’arousal. (sistemi colinergici del ponte del proencefalo basale - che gestiscono il controllo di attivazione e desincronizzazione corticale - ; sistemi colinergici del setto mediale - controllo dell’attività dell’ippocampo - ). NOTA BENE: presenti elevati livelli di acetilcolina nel sistema anche durante la fase del sonno REM

This statement is true because it states that declarative or explicit memory refers to memories that people can talk about, such as memories of past episodes in their lives or memories of relationships between stimuli and events. Declarative memory involves consciously recalling information and being able to express it verbally.

Difficoltà ad iniziare il movimento e difficoltà a fermarsi, scarsa coordinazione in sequenze di movimenti, difficoltà nella scrittura, frequenti cadute (problematiche nell’esecuzione delle risposte automatiche abituali).

The statement is true because the cerebellum is indeed connected to the brainstem and the spinal cord through three pairs of formations called the superior, middle, and inferior cerebellar peduncles. These peduncles consist of numerous bundles of both afferent and efferent fibers, which allow the cerebellum to communicate with different levels of the brain and spinal structure.

The statement is true because the force of our muscle contraction or perception is dependent on factors such as the frequency of discharge of the axon. This means that the more frequently the axon fires, the stronger the muscle contraction or perception will be. Therefore, the statement is correct in stating that the force of our muscle contraction or perception is dependent on the frequency of axon discharge.

In questa maniera si creano i potenziali post-sinaptici (depolarizzanti o iperpolarizzanti)

The explanation for the given correct answer is that the statement accurately describes the process of action potential opening calcium channels, which allows calcium ions to enter the terminal button. These calcium ions then bind to proteins in the membrane of vesicles attached to the release zone, causing the vesicles to open and release their contents. The statement also mentions that calcium is later removed from the cell by calcium transporters. Therefore, the answer "True" is correct as it aligns with the described process.

The statement is true because all neurons are composed of four main parts: the cell body or soma, dendrites, axons, and terminal buttons (synapses). These components are essential for the functioning of a neuron. The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles, while dendrites receive signals from other neurons. The axon carries signals away from the cell body, and the terminal buttons release neurotransmitters at synapses to communicate with other neurons. Therefore, it can be concluded that all neurons have these four components.

guaina mielinica, aiuta a trasportare meglio l’informazione in uscita dal corpo cellulare ai bottoni terminali

The statement is true because the terminal button releases a neurotransmitter that can transmit information to the receiving cell. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that allow communication between neurons in the nervous system. When an action potential reaches the terminal button of a neuron, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse, which can then bind to receptors on the receiving cell and transmit the information.

The statement is true. The Golgi apparatus is a complex of membranes that wraps around the products of a secretory cell and produces lysosomes, which are sacs filled with enzymes that break down cellular waste. This process helps remove substances that are no longer useful to the cell.

Microglia are the smallest glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS) and they function as phagocytes, which means they are responsible for engulfing and removing cellular debris and pathogens. They play a crucial role in the protection and maintenance of the CNS. Therefore, the statement that microglia are smaller glial cells that function as phagocytes and protect the CNS is true.

Lesioni del proencefalo basale causano insonnia.

(NOTA BENE: la caffeina blocca i recettori dell’adenosina, contrastandone gli effetti; inoltre, il bisogno soggettivo di sonno può essere influenzato anche da fattori genetici).
L’adenosina aumenta il livello di scarica dell’area pre-ottica e riduce l’attività dei neuroni istaminergici.

Nuclei del rafe (aree bulbari e pontine della formazione reticolare). Proiezioni inviate al talamo, all’ipotalamo, ai gangli della base, all’ippocampo ed alla neocorteccia.

The afferents of the cerebral cortex, including the primary motor cortex and the associative cortex, are transmitted to the cerebellar cortex through the pontine tegmental reticular nucleus. This means that information from different areas of the cerebral cortex is relayed to the cerebellum through this specific pathway. Therefore, the statement "True" is correct.

Ricaptazione: rapido recupero del neurorasmettitore dallo spazio sinaptico realizzato dal bottone terminale tramite specifici canali/trasportatori;
Disattivazione enzimatica: l’enzima distrugge il neurotrasmettitore (es.: acetilcolinesterasi --> colina e acetato).

La via diretta/indiretta iniziano dal complesso del nucleo caudato/putamen,
dopo aver ricevuto afferenze anche dalla substantia nigra che, grazie alla dopamina, eccita il complesso nucleo caudato/putamen sui recettori D1 (dando inizio della via diretta), ma inibisce l’inizio della via indiretta grazie a recettori D2.

Neuroni orexinergici situati nell’ipotalamo laterale, diverse vie di proiezione (per esempio cervelletto, locus coeruleus, nuclei del rafe, nucleo tuberomammillare, ponte dorsale e proencefalo basale con effetti eccitatori).

The given statement is true. The term "ritmo circadiano" refers to the daily rhythmic modification of a behavior or physiological process. This means that certain behaviors or processes in our body follow a natural rhythm that repeats approximately every 24 hours. This rhythm is influenced by factors such as light and darkness, and it regulates important functions like sleep-wake cycles, hormone production, and body temperature. Therefore, the statement is accurate in describing the concept of circadian rhythm.

L’adenosina aumenta il livello di scarica dell’area pre-ottica e riduce l’attività dei neuroni istaminergici;
Sistema orexinergico a sua volta stimolato (segnale eccitatorio) dalle strutture di controllo dell’orologio biologico, eccitato dal senso di fame, inibito dal senso di sazietà, con segnali inibitori ricevuti dall’area preottica.

Le cellule «REM-ON» inviano proiezioni anche al talamo che controlla poi a sua volta il livello di arousal corticale osservato durante il sonno REM, si connette poi con la formazione reticolare che a sua volta si connette con il proencefalo basale attivando alla fine il sistema colinergico responsabile dell’arousal corticale durante il sonno REM.

The given statement is true. The fastigial nucleus is a deep cerebellar nucleus that is involved in the control of movement through the reticulospinal and vestibulospinal tracts. These tracts are responsible for transmitting signals from the cerebellum to the spinal cord, which then control muscle movement. Therefore, the fastigial nucleus plays a crucial role in motor control.

The given answer is true because the statement in the question suggests that diverse cortical and subcortical structures are involved in emotional, instinctive, and behavioral integration, including the limbic lobe, the amygdala complex, septal nuclei, hypothalamus, fornix, and various thalamic nuclei.

The given statement is true. It is generally believed that the limbic system plays a role in modulating basic emotional states, anxiety, fear, aggression, as well as regulating behaviors related to eating and sexual activity. Additionally, the limbic system is thought to influence the functional state of various organs, such as the heart, blood vessels, and intestines, by acting on hypothalamic neurons and through the autonomic nervous system.

The given statement is true. The limbic system is indeed closely connected to the prefrontal cortex. These limbic-frontal circuits are known to be involved in decision-making processes based on emotional reactions.

The given explanation states that the symptoms of the three different types of cerebellar syndromes are as follows:
1. Flocculo-nodular syndrome (archicerebellar or vestibulo-cerebellar syndrome): characterized by ataxia and nystagmus.
2. Anterior lobe syndrome (paleocerebellar or spinocerebellar syndrome): characterized by ataxia with slightly rigid limbs (lack of hypotonia).
3. Posterior lobe syndrome (neocerebellar or cortico-pontocerebellar syndrome): characterized by hypotonia, intention tremor, adiadochokinesia, ataxia, hyposthenia, dysarthria, and kinetic tremor.

Therefore, the statement "Danni al cervelletto" is true.

Il cervello contiene approssimativamente 100 miliardi di neuroni alla nascita

The given statement is true. The meninges are the protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord. The dura mater is the outermost and toughest layer, followed by the arachnoid membrane in the middle, and the pia mater in contact with the brain and spinal cord. The subarachnoid space, filled with cerebrospinal fluid, is located between the pia mater and the arachnoid membrane. These structures provide protection and support to the central nervous system.

Nel Sistema nervoso periferico abbiamo solo dura madre e pia madre che tendono a fondersi

The statement is true because the basal ganglia are indeed a fundamental structure of the motor system. They play a crucial role in coordinating and regulating movement. Any damage or dysfunction in the basal ganglia can lead to severe motor deficits, such as difficulties in initiating or controlling movements. Therefore, the statement accurately states that the basal ganglia's lesion or malfunctioning can cause significant motor deficits.

Controllo e NON attivazione

Sonno ad onde lente e REM associati a consolidamento dell’apprendimento, infatti, effetti della deprivazione di sonno: maggiore influenza sulle prestazioni cognitive che fisiche

I neuroni della pre-SMA eccitati dal talamo inviano stimoli eccitatori al nucleo subtalamico che a sua volta eccita il globo pallido pars interna cha inibisce il talamo.

La regolazione motoria si svolge sulla base delle afferenze sensitive, propriocettive e anche esterocettive, provenienti da periferia, da vari livelli del tronco encefalico e dal cervello.
Prevalentemente, due ordini di fibre: le fibre muscoidi e le fibre rampicanti. La proiezione di tali fibre: rami collaterali nei nuclei profondi, rami terminali nella corteccia, in aree più o meno ben definite e con organizzazione somatotopica.
NOTA BENE: a differenza di quanto accade nel cervello, tali aree controllano strutture omolaterali del corpo, perché le relative fibre subiscono una doppia decussazione.

Le fibre muscoidi, quelle rampicanti, i granuli e le fibre parallele hanno di solito azione eccitante, mentre tutte le altre (per esempio cellule di Purkinje, cellule a canestro) sono inibenti.

The explanation for the given correct answer is that the formation of the reticular formation includes nuclei located in the bulb, the bridge, and the mesencephalon. The reticular formation controls the activity of the gamma motor system and regulates muscle tone. It is also involved in locomotion, specifically the locomotor region of the mesencephalon, which controls the activity of neurons in the reticulospinal pathway. Therefore, the statement that the reticular formation is involved in controlling motor activity and regulating muscle tone is true.

The statement is true. The amygdala is a part of the brain that is involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression. It is responsible for generating physiological and behavioral responses to objects and situations that have a particular biological significance, such as pain, the presence of food, the presence of rivals, offspring in need of care, pheromones, and responses to harmful stimuli.

The statement suggests that the assembly of cells within the amygdala, as well as between the amygdala and cortical areas, could play a significant role in implicit and emotional memory in the medium to long term. This type of memory is resistant to extinction and is created through fear conditioning. Therefore, the statement is true.