Quiz Fisiologia Del Comportamento, Carslon, III Ed. (2014)

The given statement is true. Alzheimer's disease is indeed associated with the degeneration of structures such as the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, neocortex (especially the frontal and temporal associative cortex, with atrophy and widening of cerebral sulci), locus coeruleus, and raphe nuclei. This degeneration leads to the characteristic symptoms of Alzheimer's disease, including memory loss and cognitive decline.

In tal caso, le cellule gliali appositamente dedicate tendono a distruggere assoni e dendriti in degenerazione, lasciando alla fine solo la presenza della placca. Inoltre, si verifica un eccessivo rilascio di glutammato con effetti tossici sulla cellula.
Saranno presenti anche matasse neurofibrillari (neuroni che contengono accumuli di proteina tau iperfosforilata, che compromette il normale trasporto di sostanze a livello intracellulare, causando, alla fine, la morte del neurone).

Nel caso in cui siano presenti quasi esclusivamente matasse neurofibrillari, sarà più probabile osservare una demenza fronto-temporale (degenerazione della corteccia frontale e temporale, con evidenti disturbi per esempio delle funzioni esecutive e del linguaggio).

The given statement is true. The risk factors mentioned, such as obesity, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, advancing age, and head trauma, are known to increase the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease. These factors have been identified through research and studies conducted on the disease. Therefore, it can be concluded that the statement is correct.

(considerando che i neuroni colinergici sono tra i primi ad essere danneggiati e sono implicati nell’attivazione corticale e nella memoria)

DETERMINA:
- Danneggiano la trasmissione normale del potenziale d’azione;
- Ampia varietà di disturbi neurologici a seconda della localizzazione delle placche;
- I sintomi della sclerosi multipla seguono spesso un andamento recidivante remittente oppure seguono un andamento progressivo.

Both interferon beta and glatiramer acetate provide some relief for the relapsing-remitting form of multiple sclerosis, but neither treatment is able to stop the progression of the disease. Therefore, the statement "both treatments are not able to block the progression of multiple sclerosis" is true.

Il disturbo, in effetti, è conseguente alla carenza di tiamina (vitamina B1) indotta dall'alcolismo.
La Sindrome di Korsakoff talvolta si sviluppa in persone gravemente malnutrite, sottoposte a infusione endovenosa di glucosio: l'improvvisa disponibilità di glucosio per le cellule cerebrali, senza un'adeguata quantità di tiamina con cui metabolizzarlo danneggia le cellule, probabilmente a causa dell'accumulo di piruvato.

*delirio, credenza chiaramente in contraddizione con la realtà;
*allucinazione, percezione di oggetti o eventi che non esistono.
Il sintomo primario della schizofrenia è il disturbo del pensiero.

Negli ultimi anni, realizzazione di antipsicotici atipici (clozapina, blocca i recettori D4 del nucleo accumbens), con minori effetti collaterali, che agiscono sia su sintomi positivi che negativi della schizofrenia. Gli agonisti parziali (farmaco con un'elevata affinità per un particolare recettore, ma che lo attiva meno di quanto fa il ligando normale. Serve da agonista nelle regioni di bassa concentrazione del ligando normale e da antagonista nelle regioni di alta concentrazione) della dopamina agiscono con successo su sintomi positivi e negativi della schizofrenia.

*il carbonato di litio è utilizzato per trattare il disturbo bipolare.

The given statement is true. The suggested therapies for depression include medications that inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, such as tricyclic antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). Other therapies mentioned are monoamine oxidase inhibitors, transcranial magnetic stimulation, electroconvulsive therapy, vagus nerve stimulation, exercise, and selective sleep deprivation. These treatments are commonly used in the management of depression.

The given statement describes anxiety disorder, which is a psychological disorder characterized by tension, hyperactivity of the autonomic nervous system, expectation of imminent disaster, and continuous vigilance for danger. Therefore, the correct answer is true.

The given statement is true. Social anxiety disorder is characterized by an excessive fear of being judged by others, which leads to avoiding social situations where the person is required to perform.

This statement is true. Tourette's syndrome is a neurological disorder characterized by involuntary tics and vocalizations, and sometimes by the compulsive utterance and repetition of obscenities. It is believed to be caused by lesions in the basal ganglia, cingulate gyrus, and prefrontal cortex, as well as autoimmune diseases.

Farmaci SSRI (bloccanti specifici della ricaptazione della serotonina quindi sono agonisti serotoninergici) per DOC (disturbo ossessivo-compulsivo).

The given statement describes the characteristics of autism, which is a chronic disorder that affects social interaction, communication skills, and behavior. People with autism often have difficulty forming normal social relationships, struggle with communication skills, lack imagination, and exhibit repetitive movements. Therefore, the statement is true.

ADHD is a disorder characterized by difficulty inhibiting responses, lack of sustained attention, and hyperactivity. These symptoms typically develop in childhood. The statement "Disturbo da deficit dell'attenzione/iperattività (ADHD). Disturbo caratterizzato da incapacità di inibire le risposte, mancanza di attenzione sostenuta e iperattività; i sintomi si sviluppano nell'infanzia." accurately describes the key features of ADHD, making the answer "True" correct.

The statement is true because it states that ADHD is more frequent in males and that there is strong empirical evidence indicating that family factors play an important role in determining an individual's likelihood of developing ADHD. This suggests that there is a genetic or familial component to ADHD, which is supported by research.

The given statement is true. Disturbi da stress refers to the physiological reaction caused by perceiving a threatening situation. It triggers the fight or flight response, which is a species-specific preparatory response for attacking or fleeing. It is believed to be responsible for some of the harmful effects of stressful situations.

Effetti a lungo termine in caso di stress prolungato, con effetti sulla formazione ippocampale e conseguenti problemi mnestici. Effetti anche sulla corteccia prefrontale e sull’amigdala.

The given statement explains that post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychological disorder caused by exposure to extreme danger and stress. The symptoms of PTSD include recurring dreams or memories, which can interfere with social activities and lead to a feeling of hopelessness. Therefore, the statement is true.

The most common treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy, and the administration of SNRI (serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors). SNRI is an antidepressant medication that specifically inhibits the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine without affecting the reuptake of other neurotransmitters. This statement is true because it accurately describes the commonly used treatments for PTSD.

The given answer is true because the passage states that the effectiveness of most solutions for stuttering is likely based on their ability to bypass the basal ganglia. The passage also mentions some possible solutions such as choral speech, mechanisms involving mirror neurons, and the use of tools like metronomes or external sensory signals during stuttering. Therefore, the statement is supported by the information provided in the passage.

The given statement is true. It states that there are inherited metabolic disorders such as phenylketonuria, galactosemia, and Tay-Sachs disease. Phenylketonuria is caused by the absence of an enzyme that converts the amino acid phenylalanine into tyrosine, leading to the accumulation of phenylalanine and potential brain damage if a special diet is not implemented. Galactosemia is a metabolic disorder where galactose (milk sugar) cannot be easily metabolized. Tay-Sachs disease is a fatal inherited metabolic storage disorder where the lack of enzymes in lysosomes causes the accumulation of waste products and swelling of brain cells.

Quindi il risultato finale, la percezione olfattiva, dipenderà dalla diversa attività di particolari glomeruli (informazione trasmessa in modalità olfattotopica, con determinati glomeruli che trasmettono a parti specifiche della corteccia olfattiva; se sapremo quale pattern di recettori si attiva potremo prevedere anche la percezione olfattiva finale).

Many mammals possess the vomeronasal organ, which is their response to chemical stimulations in the environment and to pheromones produced by other animals.

The statement is true. The olfactory bulbs are located at the base of the brain. Each olfactory receptor cell sends an axon to the olfactory bulbs, where they form synapses with the dendrites of mitral cells. The axons of the mitral cells then carry the information to the rest of the brain.

The statement is true because the olfactory epithelium is indeed the nasal tissue that lines the cribriform plate and contains the cilia of olfactory receptors. These cilia are responsible for detecting and transmitting olfactory signals to the brain, allowing us to perceive different smells.

The statement is true because taste has an ipsilateral representation in the brain. This means that the taste receptors on one side of the tongue send signals to the same side of the brain. When different flavors are tasted, different portions of the primary gustatory insular cortex are activated.

The explanation for the given correct answer is that the Chorda Tympani is a branch of the facial nerve that passes beneath the eardrum. It carries taste information from the front part of the tongue and also controls the secretion of certain salivary glands. Therefore, the statement that Chorda Tympani transports gustatory information from the anterior part of the tongue and controls salivary gland secretion is true.

The given statement is true. The nucleus raphe magnus, which contains serotonin-secreting neurons, projects to the gray matter of the spinal cord and is involved in the analgesic effects produced by opioids.

Danno a queste strutture causa agnosia tattile (non perdita di sensibilità tattile)!

The given statement is true. There are three types of nociceptors: high-threshold mechanoreceptors that respond to intense stimulation, receptors that respond to acids, extreme heat, and the presence of capsaicin, and receptors that respond to chemicals that can cause inflammation.

Hanno un ruolo nella «guida» dei nuovi assoni (sprouting). In questo caso se le propaggini di un nuovo assone incontra una cellula di Schwann, allora continuerà nella sua crescita, altrimenti, verrà eliminato. N.B. : tale processo è tipico del SNP non del SNC!!

Capillari avvolti da cellule gliali

The statement is true because the somatosensory system provides information about what is happening on the surface of our body and inside it, including visceral sensations. This system includes sensory receptors in the skin, muscles, and organs that transmit signals to the brain, allowing us to perceive touch, temperature, pain, and other bodily sensations.

The explanation for the given correct answer is that the corteccia uditiva associativa is indeed a region that surrounds the primary auditory cortex. It receives input from the primary auditory cortex as well as from the dorsal and medial parts of the medial geniculate body. Additionally, it is also a region of the paracintura, which receives input from the region of the cintura and the medial geniculate body. Therefore, the statement is true.

Diverse zone della membrana rispondono a diverse frequenze, quindi rappresentazione tonotopica in corteccia.

Adjacent stereocilia are connected to each other at the point of attachment called an intersection plaque. Receptor potentials, produced by the movement of the bundle of stereocilia, are discharged at these plaques where ion channels are located. This statement accurately describes the connection and function of adjacent stereocilia, making the answer "True."

Le cellule ciliate fanno sinapsi con neuroni bipolari che poi permettono la trasmissione del segnale nervoso tramite il nervo uditivo fino al cervello

The statement is true because after the bending of the basilar membrane, the changes in pressure of the cochlear fluid reach the round window, and its membrane moves in the opposite direction to the oval window. This movement allows for the transmission of sound waves and vibrations through the cochlea.

I suoni ad alta frequenza producono la flessione della base della membrana basilare, i suoni a bassa frequenza producono la flessione dell'apice (estremità opposta). QUINDI LA FREQUENZA E' CODIFICATA ANATOMICAMENTE.

The given answer "True" is correct because the statement accurately describes the Organo del corti, the cellula ciliata, and the cellula di Deiters, which are all components of the auditory system. The Organo del corti is the sensory organ on the basilar membrane that contains the ciliated auditory cells. The cellula ciliata is the receptor cell of the auditory system. The cellula di Deiters is a supporting cell found in the Organo del corti that supports the ciliated auditory cells.

The given statement is true. It states that the oval window is an opening in the bone surrounding the cochlea, which reveals the presence of a membrane against which the base of the stapes presses, transmitting sound vibrations to the fluid in the cochlea.

Le regioni fondamentali sono all’interno del solco intraparietale. Solco intraparietale, zona terminale della via dorsale della corteccia visiva associativa, è implicata nella percezione di localizzazione, attenzione visiva e controllo del movimento di occhi e mani.

L’area fusiforme si attiva anche nel riconoscimento di stimoli per cui possiamo diventare, nel tempo, esperti (es.: macchine). Stesso problema di riconoscimento (quindi, anche per gli oggetti oltre che per i volti) in caso di lesione di quest’area (agnosia per gli oggetti).

The given statement is true. The passage states that there are at least two dozen different subregions of the visual cortex, arranged hierarchically. Each region analyzes a particular characteristic of visual information and passes the results of the analysis to other regions in the hierarchy. This suggests that there is a complex and organized system within the visual cortex for processing visual information.

Neuroni della corteccia striata sono prevalentemente binoculari, rispondono alla stimolazione visiva di entrambi gli occhi, alcune di queste cellule rispondono di più quando ciascun occhio percepisce una prospettiva diversa (disparità retinica).
Questa è l’informazione necessaria per la stereopsi, la presenza della disparità retinica indica le differenze nella distanza degli oggetti da osservare.

Difetti della visione: Difetti genetici preferibilmente su cromosoma X, quindi maschi più affetti.

The statement is true because the receptive field of a neuron in the visual system refers to the specific region in the visual field that needs to be stimulated in order for that neuron to respond. It is the portion of the visual field where the presentation of a stimulus will result in a change in the firing rate of that particular neuron.

la proiezione nasale della retina si incrocia in tale struttura terminando nella corteccia visiva controlaterale. Ciascun emisfero riceverà informazioni della metà controlaterale della scena visiva.

The statement is true because the fotopigments are indeed located in the lamellae of the outer segment. These fotopigments are composed of opsins, which are proteins, and retinal, which is a lipid.

Fotorecettori costituiti da un segmento interno ed un segmento esterno uniti dal ciglio connettivale

The statement is explaining the process of accommodation, which refers to the changes in the thickness of the eye's lens caused by the contraction of the ciliary muscles. These changes help to focus the images of near or distant objects on the retina. The given statement is true as it accurately describes the process of accommodation.

The given statement is true. "Movimento di inseguimento" refers to the movement made by the eye to keep the image of a moving object on the fovea. This movement is necessary to maintain clear vision of the object as it moves across the visual field. Therefore, the statement is correct.

The given statement is true. Sensory transduction is the process by which sensory events are transformed into changes in the cell's membrane potential. This process allows sensory cells to convert external stimuli, such as light, sound, or touch, into electrical signals that can be interpreted by the nervous system.

Nucleo genicolato laterale: dalla retina alla corteccia visiva;
Nucleo genicolato mediale: dall’orecchio interno alla corteccia uditiva primaria;
Nucleo ventrolaterale: riceve afferenze dal cervelletto e proietta alla corteccia motoria primaria.

The explanation for the given correct answer is that the corteccia associativa motoria consists of the supplementary motor area (SMA), pre-SMA, and the premotor cortex. These regions are located in the dorsomedial, dorsal, and lateral portions of the frontal lobe, respectively. They receive sensory information from the parietal and temporal lobes before connecting to the primary motor cortex. Therefore, the statement that the corteccia associativa motoria receives sensory information before connecting to the primary motor cortex is true.

The given statement is true. The mielencephalon is a part of the brainstem that contains the medulla oblongata, which is responsible for regulating the cardiovascular system, respiratory system, and muscle tone. Therefore, the statement accurately describes the functions of the mielencephalon.

Il midollo spinale è protetto dalla colonna vertebrale (24 vertebre) che si divide in regione cervicale, toracica e lombare, più la porzione sacrale e il coccige.

Radici dorsali: radice spinale che contiene fibre sensitive in entrata;
Radici ventrali: radice spinale che contiene fibre motorie in uscita efferenti;
Le radici dorsali e ventrali si uniscono poi per formare i nervi spinali.

The explanation for the given correct answer is that the statement accurately describes the structure of the spinal cord. The spinal cord is composed of white matter, which consists of myelinated ascending and descending axons, located in the outer portion of the cord. The gray matter, on the other hand, contains cell bodies and unmyelinated axons and is found in the inner portion of the cord. Therefore, the statement "Midollo spinale, Sostanza bianca (assoni mielinici ascendenti e discendenti) si trova nella porzione esterna del midollo, sostanza grigia (corpi cellulari e corti assoni non mielinizzati) nella porzione interna" is true.

The given information explains the effects of damage to different areas of the cerebellum. Damage to the flocculonodular lobe or the vermis can cause problems with posture and balance. Damage to the intermediate lobe can result in issues with the rubrospinal system, leading to stiffness in the limbs. Damage to the lateral zone can affect movement coordination, causing a loss of fluidity in movement and difficulty with rapid ballistic movements. Therefore, the statement that "Lesioni del cervelletto" (damage to the cerebellum) can cause these specific problems is true.

- Il sistema vestibulocerebellare riceve input dal nucleo vestibolare e coinvolge il lobo flocculonodulare;
- Il sistema spinocerebellare coinvolge il verme, la parte intermedia degli emisferi cerebellari e due nuclei cerebellari profondi (il fastigio e l’interposito); è innervato dal midollo spinale;
- Il sistema cerebrocerebellare interessa il nucleo cerebellare profondo del dentato e la parte laterale degli emisferi cerebellari, riceve afferenze esclusivamente dalla corteccia cerebrale.

Da qui l’informazione va al talamo ventrolaterale che poi trasferisce il tutto alla corteccia primaria.

The statement is explaining the somatic nervous system, which is a part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for controlling skeletal muscle movements and transmitting somatosensory information to the central nervous system. Therefore, the statement is true.

La zona laterale del cervelletto proietta al nucleo rosso attraverso il nucleo dentato.

The statement is true because it states that the intermediate zone of the cerebellar cortex projects to the interposed nuclei, which in turn project to the red nucleus and influence the rubrospinal system. The interposed nuclei also project to the thalamus (ventrolateral nucleus), allowing the signal to reach the motor cortex.

The explanation for the given correct answer is that the sympathetic nervous system controls the adrenal medulla, which secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline. On the other hand, the parasympathetic system of the autonomic nervous system (innervated by the vagus nerve) increases energy supplies to the body, promotes salivation and digestion. Therefore, the statement that the sympathetic nervous system controls the adrenal medulla is true.

The given statement is true. The worm receives auditory and visual information from the roof and cutaneous and kinesthetic information from the spinal cord, sending information to the fastigial nucleus. The worm also receives somatosensory information and controls the vestibulospinal and reticulospinal tracts through connections with the fastigial nucleus.

The explanation for the given correct answer is that the specialization of different brain regions is genetically programmed or linked to critical periods, as seen in the example of stereopsis. However, plasticity also exists in adults, as seen in the example of phantom limb phenomenon. This suggests that while certain brain functions may be genetically determined or develop during critical periods, the brain also has the ability to adapt and change throughout adulthood.

la maggiore parte dei neurotrasmettitori hanno lo scopo di bilanciare gli effetti eccitatori e gli effetti inibitori nel sistema nervoso centrale (es: attivazione o inibizione di circuiti neuronali che poi useranno glutammato o GABA per trasmettere l’informazione).

- ​Rappresentazione somatotopica nelle connessioni tra area motoria e gangli della base;
- Nel circuito che dalla corteccia va ai gangli della base le connessioni possono essere di natura sia eccitatoria (glutammato) che inibitoria (GABA);
- In generale il nucleo caudato ed il putamen ricevono connessioni eccitatorie dalla corteccia cerebrale con connessioni inibitorie inviate poi al globo pallido interno ed esterno;
- Il nucleo subtalamico riceve segnali eccitatori dalla corteccia e li invia al globo pallido pars interna.

MONOAMINE, una classe di AMINE che include INDOLAMINE: come la serotonina, e CATECOLAMINEA: come dopamina, norepinefrina ed epinefrina.

The statement is suggesting that monoamines are produced by cell bodies in the brainstem and have widespread axonal connections. This is true because monoamines, such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, are indeed produced by cell bodies in the brainstem and have extensive axonal projections throughout the brain and spinal cord. These neurotransmitters play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes and are involved in mood, behavior, and cognition.

Sistemi dopaminergici:
Substantia nigra,
Mesencefalo,
Area tegmentale ventrale.

Sistema nigro-striatale: Proietta dalla substantia nigra verso lo striato (nucleo caudato e putamen, gangli della base);

The given statement is true. The extrapyramidal system is a collection of pathways and nerve centers that directly or indirectly influence motor actions, controlling instinctive reactions and adapting them to voluntary movement. It works in coordination with the pyramidal system to ensure proper motor function.

L-DOPA is a precursor to dopamine and can cross the blood-brain barrier, unlike dopamine itself. This allows L-DOPA to facilitate the synthesis of dopamine in the brain. On the other hand, AMPT inhibits the synthesis of both dopamine and noradrenaline. Therefore, the statement that L-DOPA facilitates dopamine synthesis and AMPT inhibits dopamine and noradrenaline synthesis is true.

The explanation for the given correct answer is that serotonina (5-HT) is indeed involved in the regulation of mood, appetite, sleep, arousal, and pain. It is synthesized from the precursor tryptophan and produced in specific regions of the brain, such as the dorsal and medial raphe nuclei. Serotonin is released through axonal varicosities. Additionally, drugs that inhibit the reuptake of serotonin, like Fluoxetine (Prozac), are commonly used as antidepressants. Therefore, the statement "Serotonina (5-HT): Regolazione dell'umore, appetito, sonno, arousal e del dolore" is true.

The statement is true because it states that there are nine different types of serotonin receptors, including metabotropic receptors, ionotropic receptors, and autoreceptors. This suggests that serotonin can bind to different types of receptors in the body, which can have various effects on neurotransmission and physiological processes.

(per esempio, la stimolazione elettrica di aree quali SMA e pre-SMA sembra dimostrare il coinvolgimento di tali aree nella gestione della volontà di muoversi)

Con gradiente di maggiori connessioni con aree motorie per la SMA-proper (funzionalità maggiormente motoria in senso stretto) fino a presentare connessioni più importanti con aree pre-frontali per anterior pre-SMA (valenza maggiormente cognitiva; ruolo nel decision making).

Occhio che i corpi mamillari sono dell'ipotalamo e non dell'area limbica. Fornice collega area limbica a corpi mamillari

The given information provides a description of various structures in the brain and their functions. It states that the tegmentum contains the reticular formation, which receives sensory information and sends it to the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and spinal cord. It also mentions the periaqueductal gray matter, which is involved in the organism's response to pain. The red nucleus is described as carrying motor commands from the cortex and cerebellum to the spinal cord. Lastly, the substantia nigra is said to project to the caudate nucleus and putamen, which are involved in Parkinson's disease. Therefore, the statement is true as it accurately represents the functions of these brain structures.

NOTA BENE: Il lobo parietale riceve informazioni sulla localizzazione spaziale anche dal sistema somatosensoriale e dal sistema uditivo, integrando il tutto con l’informazione visiva.

- Attività più forte del sistema quando si osserva un tipo di movimento del quale si ha competenza ed esperienza;
- Esistenza di neuroni specchio «audiovisivi» che rispondono sia alla vista che al suono di determinate azioni;
- Questo sistema ci permette di comprendere un’azione che stiamo osservando perché la rappresentazione motoria di quell’azione è attiva nel nostro cervello;
- Ruolo quindi anche nel riconoscimento delle emozioni e dell’empatia.

fMRI: eseguire (od immaginare) sequenze di movimenti complessi causa pattern di attivazioni specifiche in queste strutture.

The tratto reticolospinale is a bundle of axons that travels from the reticular formation to the gray matter of the spinal cord. It is involved in the control of muscle tone, respiration, and plays a role in walking. This statement is true because the tratto reticolospinale does indeed have these functions.

The given statement is true. The corticobulbar tract is the second descending pathway of the lateral group, which projects to the brainstem and terminates in the motor nuclei of the fifth (trigeminal), seventh (facial), ninth (glossopharyngeal), tenth (vagus), eleventh (spinal accessory), and twelfth (hypoglossal) cranial nerves. This tract is responsible for controlling movements of the face, neck, tongue, and extraocular movements.

The given statement is true. The ventral corticospinal tract is a pathway that originates in the motor cortex and terminates in the ventral portion of the ipsilateral spinal gray matter. It is responsible for controlling movements of the lower limbs and trunk.

The given statement is true. Histological methods, such as fixation and sectioning of tissues, staining, and microscopic examination, are commonly used to analyze the effects of a lesion. These techniques allow researchers to study the structural changes and abnormalities in tissues caused by the lesion, providing valuable insights into the underlying pathology.

The given statement is explaining the concept of the "reflex of the serrated knife," which is a reflex that occurs in response to the application of a force that tends to flex or extend the limb of an animal with decerebration rigidity. In this reflex, the resistance is replaced by a sudden release. The statement is saying that this explanation is true.

The explanation for the given correct answer is that the statement describes the method of stimulation called optogenetics, which involves using a genetically modified virus to insert light-sensitive ion channels into neuron membranes. These neurons can then be depolarized or hyperpolarized by applying light of an appropriate wavelength. Therefore, the statement is true.

The given statement is true. It states that the neuromuscular spindles initiate afferent impulses that travel along the fibers to the gray matter of the spinal cord, where they synapse with alpha motor neurons. These motor neurons innervate the extrafusal muscle fibers of the muscle, causing them to contract. This process is essential for muscle function and movement.

Una importante funzione del riflesso monosinaptico da stiramento riguarda il controllo della postura.

Nella sinapsi si libera acetilcolina con conseguente depolarizzazione della membrana della fibra muscolare (potenziale di placca, più potente del normale potenziale d’azione, causa la contrazione della fibra muscolare). La depolarizzazione apre i canali per il calcio voltaggio-dipendenti, con gli ioni calcio che alla fine permettono la contrazione muscolare, permettendo alle miofibrille di estrarre energia dall’ATP presente nel citoplasma.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a procedure that detects groups of neurons activated in a synchronized manner through the magnetic field induced by their electrical activity. It utilizes systems of superconducting quantum interference devices, or SQUIDs. This statement is true because MEG does indeed use SQUIDs to measure the tiny magnetic fields generated by neuronal activity in the brain.

Il problema inverso si può risolvere attraverso l’analisi del dipolo (risoluzione del problema della stima dei sei parametri che lo caratterizzano) o attraverso tecniche di analisi distribuita della sorgente.

Utilizza la radiazione ottica e la banda spettrale nel vicino infrarosso. Tramite la tecnica NIRS, l’attività cerebrale è misurata attraverso la risposta emodinamica associata al comportamento. Il fotone NIR lanciato nel tessuto biologico non lo attraversa secondo un percorso rettilineo tra sorgente e rivelatore, ma esegue un percorso variabile, a seconda del numero di eventi a cui va incontro, che si conclude con l’assorbimento del fotone da parte del tessuto o con la sua fuoriuscita dal tessuto.

*Blood oxigen level dependent

The explanation for the given correct answer is that slower brain rhythms, such as theta and delta waves, are indeed characteristic of different sleep stages. The theta rhythm is present in the early stages of sleep and is also more prevalent in certain neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson's disease. On the other hand, the delta rhythm is a slow wave rhythm that is typical of deep sleep stages (stages 3-4 NREM). Therefore, the statement that slower brain rhythms are typical of different sleep stages is true.

In recent years, techniques based on the use of EEG, ECoG, fMRI, or NIRS have been developed. These techniques allow for the control of external devices, such as neuroprosthetics, or tools to improve communication in patients with specific conditions like locked-in syndrome. This statement is true because these techniques have indeed been developed and are being used for these purposes.

Utile per lo studio del sistema nervoso periferico da un punto di vista funzionale , principalmente utilizzato come mezzo diagnostico in clinica.

Tipo e quantità di neuroni stimolati dipende anche dalla direzione della corrente nel coil, con diversi effetti del campo magnetico indotto.

Effetti collaterali: discinesie e distonie, posture e movimenti involontari causati da eccessiva stimolazione dei recettori dopaminergici dei gangli della base.
L-DOPA utile fino ad un certo livello della degenerazione neuronale.

L’acetilcolina è forse il più importante neurotrasmettitore nella gestione e nel controllo dell’arousal. (sistemi colinergici del ponte del proencefalo basale - che gestiscono il controllo di attivazione e desincronizzazione corticale - ; sistemi colinergici del setto mediale - controllo dell’attività dell’ippocampo - ). NOTA BENE: presenti elevati livelli di acetilcolina nel sistema anche durante la fase del sonno REM

Lesioni del proencefalo basale causano insonnia.

This statement is true because it states that declarative or explicit memory refers to memories that people can talk about, such as memories of past episodes in their lives or memories of relationships between stimuli and events. Declarative memory involves consciously recalling information and being able to express it verbally.

The statement is true because all neurons are composed of four main parts: the cell body or soma, dendrites, axons, and terminal buttons (synapses). These components are essential for the functioning of a neuron. The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles, while dendrites receive signals from other neurons. The axon carries signals away from the cell body, and the terminal buttons release neurotransmitters at synapses to communicate with other neurons. Therefore, it can be concluded that all neurons have these four components.

guaina mielinica, aiuta a trasportare meglio l’informazione in uscita dal corpo cellulare ai bottoni terminali

The statement is true because the terminal button releases a neurotransmitter that can transmit information to the receiving cell. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that allow communication between neurons in the nervous system. When an action potential reaches the terminal button of a neuron, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse, which can then bind to receptors on the receiving cell and transmit the information.

The statement is true. The Golgi apparatus is a complex of membranes that wraps around the products of a secretory cell and produces lysosomes, which are sacs filled with enzymes that break down cellular waste. This process helps remove substances that are no longer useful to the cell.

Microglia are the smallest glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS) and they function as phagocytes, which means they are responsible for engulfing and removing cellular debris and pathogens. They play a crucial role in the protection and maintenance of the CNS. Therefore, the statement that microglia are smaller glial cells that function as phagocytes and protect the CNS is true.

The statement is true because the force of our muscle contraction or perception is dependent on factors such as the frequency of discharge of the axon. This means that the more frequently the axon fires, the stronger the muscle contraction or perception will be. Therefore, the statement is correct in stating that the force of our muscle contraction or perception is dependent on the frequency of axon discharge.

In questa maniera si creano i potenziali post-sinaptici (depolarizzanti o iperpolarizzanti)

The explanation for the given correct answer is that the statement accurately describes the process of action potential opening calcium channels, which allows calcium ions to enter the terminal button. These calcium ions then bind to proteins in the membrane of vesicles attached to the release zone, causing the vesicles to open and release their contents. The statement also mentions that calcium is later removed from the cell by calcium transporters. Therefore, the answer "True" is correct as it aligns with the described process.

The statement is true because the cerebellum is indeed connected to the brainstem and the spinal cord through three pairs of formations called the superior, middle, and inferior cerebellar peduncles. These peduncles consist of numerous bundles of both afferent and efferent fibers, which allow the cerebellum to communicate with different levels of the brain and spinal structure.

Difficoltà ad iniziare il movimento e difficoltà a fermarsi, scarsa coordinazione in sequenze di movimenti, difficoltà nella scrittura, frequenti cadute (problematiche nell’esecuzione delle risposte automatiche abituali).

Ricaptazione: rapido recupero del neurorasmettitore dallo spazio sinaptico realizzato dal bottone terminale tramite specifici canali/trasportatori;
Disattivazione enzimatica: l’enzima distrugge il neurotrasmettitore (es.: acetilcolinesterasi --> colina e acetato).

The afferents of the cerebral cortex, including the primary motor cortex and the associative cortex, are transmitted to the cerebellar cortex through the pontine tegmental reticular nucleus. This means that information from different areas of the cerebral cortex is relayed to the cerebellum through this specific pathway. Therefore, the statement "True" is correct.

La via diretta/indiretta iniziano dal complesso del nucleo caudato/putamen,
dopo aver ricevuto afferenze anche dalla substantia nigra che, grazie alla dopamina, eccita il complesso nucleo caudato/putamen sui recettori D1 (dando inizio della via diretta), ma inibisce l’inizio della via indiretta grazie a recettori D2.

(NOTA BENE: la caffeina blocca i recettori dell’adenosina, contrastandone gli effetti; inoltre, il bisogno soggettivo di sonno può essere influenzato anche da fattori genetici).
L’adenosina aumenta il livello di scarica dell’area pre-ottica e riduce l’attività dei neuroni istaminergici.

Nuclei del rafe (aree bulbari e pontine della formazione reticolare). Proiezioni inviate al talamo, all’ipotalamo, ai gangli della base, all’ippocampo ed alla neocorteccia.

Sonno ad onde lente e REM associati a consolidamento dell’apprendimento, infatti, effetti della deprivazione di sonno: maggiore influenza sulle prestazioni cognitive che fisiche

Neuroni orexinergici situati nell’ipotalamo laterale, diverse vie di proiezione (per esempio cervelletto, locus coeruleus, nuclei del rafe, nucleo tuberomammillare, ponte dorsale e proencefalo basale con effetti eccitatori).

The given statement is true. The term "ritmo circadiano" refers to the daily rhythmic modification of a behavior or physiological process. This means that certain behaviors or processes in our body follow a natural rhythm that repeats approximately every 24 hours. This rhythm is influenced by factors such as light and darkness, and it regulates important functions like sleep-wake cycles, hormone production, and body temperature. Therefore, the statement is accurate in describing the concept of circadian rhythm.

L’adenosina aumenta il livello di scarica dell’area pre-ottica e riduce l’attività dei neuroni istaminergici;
Sistema orexinergico a sua volta stimolato (segnale eccitatorio) dalle strutture di controllo dell’orologio biologico, eccitato dal senso di fame, inibito dal senso di sazietà, con segnali inibitori ricevuti dall’area preottica.

Le cellule «REM-ON» inviano proiezioni anche al talamo che controlla poi a sua volta il livello di arousal corticale osservato durante il sonno REM, si connette poi con la formazione reticolare che a sua volta si connette con il proencefalo basale attivando alla fine il sistema colinergico responsabile dell’arousal corticale durante il sonno REM.

The given answer is true because the statement in the question suggests that diverse cortical and subcortical structures are involved in emotional, instinctive, and behavioral integration, including the limbic lobe, the amygdala complex, septal nuclei, hypothalamus, fornix, and various thalamic nuclei.

The given statement is true. It is generally believed that the limbic system plays a role in modulating basic emotional states, anxiety, fear, aggression, as well as regulating behaviors related to eating and sexual activity. Additionally, the limbic system is thought to influence the functional state of various organs, such as the heart, blood vessels, and intestines, by acting on hypothalamic neurons and through the autonomic nervous system.

The given statement is true. The limbic system is indeed closely connected to the prefrontal cortex. These limbic-frontal circuits are known to be involved in decision-making processes based on emotional reactions.

Il cervello contiene approssimativamente 100 miliardi di neuroni alla nascita

The given statement is true. The meninges are the protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord. The dura mater is the outermost and toughest layer, followed by the arachnoid membrane in the middle, and the pia mater in contact with the brain and spinal cord. The subarachnoid space, filled with cerebrospinal fluid, is located between the pia mater and the arachnoid membrane. These structures provide protection and support to the central nervous system.

Nel Sistema nervoso periferico abbiamo solo dura madre e pia madre che tendono a fondersi

The given explanation states that the symptoms of the three different types of cerebellar syndromes are as follows:
1. Flocculo-nodular syndrome (archicerebellar or vestibulo-cerebellar syndrome): characterized by ataxia and nystagmus.
2. Anterior lobe syndrome (paleocerebellar or spinocerebellar syndrome): characterized by ataxia with slightly rigid limbs (lack of hypotonia).
3. Posterior lobe syndrome (neocerebellar or cortico-pontocerebellar syndrome): characterized by hypotonia, intention tremor, adiadochokinesia, ataxia, hyposthenia, dysarthria, and kinetic tremor.

Therefore, the statement "Danni al cervelletto" is true.

The given statement is true. The fastigial nucleus is a deep cerebellar nucleus that is involved in the control of movement through the reticulospinal and vestibulospinal tracts. These tracts are responsible for transmitting signals from the cerebellum to the spinal cord, which then control muscle movement. Therefore, the fastigial nucleus plays a crucial role in motor control.

I neuroni della pre-SMA eccitati dal talamo inviano stimoli eccitatori al nucleo subtalamico che a sua volta eccita il globo pallido pars interna cha inibisce il talamo.

Controllo e NON attivazione

The statement is true because the basal ganglia are indeed a fundamental structure of the motor system. They play a crucial role in coordinating and regulating movement. Any damage or dysfunction in the basal ganglia can lead to severe motor deficits, such as difficulties in initiating or controlling movements. Therefore, the statement accurately states that the basal ganglia's lesion or malfunctioning can cause significant motor deficits.