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Side A ------ Side B
What is the nervous system ------ About 3% of total body weight, one of the smallest but most complex systems.
What are some structures of the nervous system? ------ Brain, cranial nerves and their branches, ganglia, enteric plexuses, sensory receptors.
The brain is... ------ enclosed by the skull, contains 100 billion neurons, and 12 pairs (rgt and lft) of cranial nerves.
What is a nerve? ------ A bundle of hundreds to thousands of axons w/ associated tissue and blood vessels that lies outside of the brain and spinal cord.
What is the function of the spinal cord? ------ Connects the brain through the foramen magnum of the skull and is encircled by the bones of the vertebral colum, contains 100 million neurons.
Spinal nerves ------ 31 prs, that emerge from the spinal cord, each serving a specific region on the right and left side of the body.
ganglia ------ small masses of nervous tissue, consisting mostly of neuron cell bodies, located outside of brain and spinal cord
enteric plexuses ------ extensive neurons that help regulate the digestive system
sensory receptor ------ used to refer to dendrites of sensory neurons as well as separate, specialized cells that monitor changes in internal or external enviroment
Function of the nervous system ------ carries out a complex array of tasks, grouped into 3 basic functions: sensory, integrative, motor
Sensory function ------ detect internal stimuli. Info carried to brain/spinal cord through spinal & cranial nerves
Integrative function ------ nervous system integrates information by analyzing & storing. Connects Sensory and motor functions.Important function, perception
Perception ------ the conscious awareness of sensory stimuli
Motor function ------ activates effectors (muscles and glands) through cranial and spinal nerves. Stimulation of the effectors causes contraction and secretion.
What are the two subdivisions of the nervous system? ------ Central nervous system (CNS), Peripheral nervous sytem (PNS).
CNS consists of... ------ brain and spinal cord
PNS includes... ------ all nevous tissue outside of the CNS
What are neurons ------ also known as nerve cells, possess electrical excitability.
Electrical excitability ------ the ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it into AP
Stimulus ------ any change in the environment that is strong enough to initiate an AP
An AP or nerve impulse is a.... ------ electrical signal that propagates (travels) along the surface of the membrane neuron, it begins and travels due to K+ and Na+ ions.
In what manner does the electrical signal travel? ------ once begun they travel at a rapid and constant strength
What are the three parts of a neuron ------  cell body, dendrites, and axons
cell body ------ known as the periaryon or soma, contains nucleus and cytoplasm with organelles.
What are the three unique features of the cell body ------ -there are nissil bodies located in the rough ER
-hypofusion/lipofuscion the yellow pigment
-neurofibrils (maintains shape and support)
Dendrites ------ structures that receive stimulus and send info to cell body, tree-shaped
Axon ------ takes all info from cell body and it is a strong enough stimulus it will send out information, long thin cylindrical w/ branches
Where are the places an Axon will send a stimulus? ------ Towards/Away from: neuron along the path, the brain, the spinal cord, glands, muscles, cells, organs
Parts of an Axon: ------ Hillock, initial segment, trigger zone, axon collateral, axolemma, axoplasm, axon terminal, myelin sheath
Hillock ------ cone-shaped, cell body of axon
Initial segment ------ first part of the axon closest to the axon hillock
Trigger Zone ------ junction of hillock and initial segment
axolemma ------ plasma membrane of the axon
asoplasm ------ cytoplasm of the axon
axon terminal ------ the many fine processes at the end of the axon
myelin sheath ------ only on myelinated axons/ Ex: PNS
NTS ------ stands for neurotransmitters
What are neurolgia and how large is it? ------ also known as glial, smaller than neurons, 5 to 50X more, take up 1/2 volume of CNS
What do neurolgia do? ------ They do not generate AP's, can divide, nourish/insulate/support/protect neurons
How many types or neurolgia are there? ------ 6 types. 4 in CNS, 2 in PNS
4 types of neurolgia in CNS ------ Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes,Microbial cells, ependymal cells
astrocytes ------ takes up the excess NTS's and maintains the K+ balance, star shaped cells, largest and most numerous
oligondendrocytes ------ produces and secretes myelin, which increases the speed of AP's
microbial/ microglia ------ small phagocytic with spinelike projections, eats microbes and cell debris
ependymal cells ------ possess cilia and microvilli, lines the surface, secretes CSF (cerebrealspinal fluid)
2 types of neurolgia ------ schwann cells and satellite cells
schwann cells ------ myelin sheath (speeds up AP)
satellite cells ------ supports neuron cell bodies in the ganglion
Nerve Repair ------ -occurs only in PNS
-neurolemma repairs damadged axon (schwann cells)
nodes of ranvier ------ "sausages" gaps in the myelin sheath, appear in intervals along the axon
RMP ------ resting membrane potential
electrochemical gradient ------ a concentration (chemical) difference plus an electrical difference
what happens when ion channels open? ------ they allow specific ions to move across the plasma membrane
how to ions move ------ from a higher concentration to a lower concentration, postively charged cations move toward a neg. charged area
 ion charges open and close due to... ------ gates/channels
leakage channels ------ randomly alternate b/w open and closed. Permeabililty to K+ much higher than to NA+
ligand-gated channel ------ opens and closes in response to a specific chemical stimulus, a wide variety of chemical ligands can open and close channels
What are some examples of chemical ligands ------ neurotransmitters and hormones
What does the neurotransmitter acetylcholine do? ------ opens cation channels that allow Na+ and Ca+ to diffuse inward and K+ to diffuse outward
Mechanically gated channels ------ open or close in response to mechanical stimulation in the form of vibration, touch, pressure or tissue stretching
voltage gated channels ------ opens in response to a change in membrane potential (voltage)
how does resting membrane potential exist ------ because of a small buildup of -ions in the cytosol along the inside of the membrane and equal buildup of +ions in ECF along outer surface
potential energy is measured in... ------ millivolts (mv)
what is potential energy ------ a separation of positive and negative electrical charges
what is true about the difference in charge across the membrane ------ the greater the difference the larger the membrane potential (voltage)
what is graded potential ------ a small deviation from the membrane potential that makes the membrane more polarized or less polarized
more polarized ------ the inside is more negative
less polarized ------ the inside is less negative
hyperpolarizing ------ when the response makes the membrane more polarized
depolarizing graded potential ------ when the response makes the membrane less polarized
decremental conduction ------ the mode of travel by which graded potentials die out as they spread along the membrane
summation ------ the process by which graded potentials add together
propagagtion ------ the AP keeps its strength as it spreads along the membrane
continous conduction ------ involves step by step depolarization and repolarization of each adjacent segment of the plasma membrane
salatory conduction ------ the special mode of AP propagation that occurs along myelinated axons, occurs b/c of uneven distribution of voltage-gated channels
nodes of Ranvier (no myelin sheath) ------ the axolemma has many voltage-gated channels
what are the two consequences of a current crossing the membrane ------ AP appears to leap from node to node as each nodal area depolarized to threshold=saltatory, opening a small # of channels, energy efficient
what three things effect the speed of propagation of an AP ------ amount of myelination, axon diameter, and temperature
amount of myelination ------ AP propagates more rapidly along myelinated axons than along unmyelinated axons
axon diameter ------ larger-diameter axons propagate AP faster than smaller ones due to their larger surface areas
temperature ------ axons propagate AP's at lower speeds when cooled
presynaptic neuron ------ the synapse b/w neurons, it is the neuron sending the signal
postsynaptic neuron ------ neuron receiving the message
axodendritic ------ from axon to dendrite
axoaxonic ------ from axon to axon
What are the two types of synapses ------ electrical and chemical
what are synapses essential for ------ homeostasis b/c they allow info to be filtered and integrated
what can come from the disruptions of synaptic communication ------ diseases and neurological disorders
electrical synapse ------ AP's conduct directly b/w adjacent cells through structures called gap junctions
where are gap junctions common ------ visceral smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, developing embryo, CNS
What are two main advantages to electrical synapses ------ Faster communication and Synchronization
Faster communication ------ faster communication, b/c AP conduct directly through gap junctions, they are faster
Synchronization ------ coordination of the activity of a group of neurons or muscle fibers, can produce AP's in unison 
Chemical synapses ------ plasma membranes of presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons that are close but do not touch
postsynaptic potential ------ type of grade potential caused when postsynaptic neuron recieves chemical signal
epsp ------ excitatory and inhibitory posysynaptic potential (neurotransmitter deploarizes the postsynaptic membrane bringing it closer to threshold
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential  ------ IPSP, neurotransmitter that causes hyperpolarization, membrane potential becomes more negative and farther than threshold
iontropic receptor ------ a type of neurotransmitter receptor that contains a NT binding site and an ion channel, are components of the same protein
what kind of channel is an iontropic receptor ------ ligand-gated channels
when does ESPS or IPSP  occur in the postsynaptic cell ------ w/out the ligand, the ion channel component of ionotropic receptor is closed, when correct neurotransmitter binds ion channel opens
what do epsp's result in ------ opening of cation channels and allow K+, Na+, and Ca+ through the cell membrane
what do ipsp's result from ------ opening Cl channels, when these open chloride ions diffuse inward
spatial summation... ------ is the summation of postsynaptic potentials in response to stimuli that occur at different locations in membrane at the same time
temporal summation ------ summation of postsynaptic potentials in response to stimuli that occur at the same location in membrane at different times (gradual)
acetylcholine (ACh) ------ released by many PNS neurons and by some CNS neurons, when binding occurs w/ ionotropic receptors cation channels open
Glutamate ------ glutamic acids (amino acid) powerful excitatory affect
asparate ------ aspartic acid (amino acid) powerful excitatory affect
gamma aminobutyric acid and glycine ------ GABA and glycine are important inhibitory neurotransmitters, opens Cl channels
norepinephrine (NE) ------ plays roles in arousal (awakening from deep sleep), dreaming, regulating mood, serves as hormones
epinephrine ------ neurotransmitter, serves as hormones
dopamine ------ are active during emotional responses, addictive behavior and pleasurable experiences, help regulate skeletal muscle tone and some mvmnt
serotonin ------ concentrated in the neurons in a part of the brain, involved in sensory perception, temp regulation, control of mood, appetite and sleep
nitric oxide ------ important w/ widespread effects throughout the body
neuropeptides ------ numerous and widespread in both CNS and PNS, bind to metabotropic receptors, have excitatory and inhibitory actions
enkephalins ------ 200x stronger than morphine
endorphins and dynorphins ------ bodies natural painkillers

Side A ------ Side B
What is the nervous system ------ About 3% of total body weight, one of the smallest but most complex systems.
What are some structures of the nervous system? ------ Brain, cranial nerves and their branches, ganglia, enteric plexuses, sensory receptors.
The brain is... ------ enclosed by the skull, contains 100 billion neurons, and 12 pairs (rgt and lft) of cranial nerves.
What is a nerve? ------ A bundle of hundreds to thousands of axons w/ associated tissue and blood vessels that lies outside of the brain and spinal cord.
What is the function of the spinal cord? ------ Connects the brain through the foramen magnum of the skull and is encircled by the bones of the vertebral colum, contains 100 million neurons.
Spinal nerves ------ 31 prs, that emerge from the spinal cord, each serving a specific region on the right and left side of the body.
ganglia ------ small masses of nervous tissue, consisting mostly of neuron cell bodies, located outside of brain and spinal cord
enteric plexuses ------ extensive neurons that help regulate the digestive system
sensory receptor ------ used to refer to dendrites of sensory neurons as well as separate, specialized cells that monitor changes in internal or external enviroment
Function of the nervous system ------ carries out a complex array of tasks, grouped into 3 basic functions: sensory, integrative, motor
Sensory function ------ detect internal stimuli. Info carried to brain/spinal cord through spinal & cranial nerves
Integrative function ------ nervous system integrates information by analyzing & storing. Connects Sensory and motor functions.Important function, perception
Perception ------ the conscious awareness of sensory stimuli
Motor function ------ activates effectors (muscles and glands) through cranial and spinal nerves. Stimulation of the effectors causes contraction and secretion.
What are the two subdivisions of the nervous system? ------ Central nervous system (CNS), Peripheral nervous sytem (PNS).
CNS consists of... ------ brain and spinal cord
PNS includes... ------ all nevous tissue outside of the CNS
What are neurons ------ also known as nerve cells, possess electrical excitability.
Electrical excitability ------ the ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it into AP
Stimulus ------ any change in the environment that is strong enough to initiate an AP
An AP or nerve impulse is a.... ------ electrical signal that propagates (travels) along the surface of the membrane neuron, it begins and travels due to K+ and Na+ ions.
In what manner does the electrical signal travel? ------ once begun they travel at a rapid and constant strength
What are the three parts of a neuron ------  cell body, dendrites, and axons
cell body ------ known as the periaryon or soma, contains nucleus and cytoplasm with organelles.
What are the three unique features of the cell body ------ -there are nissil bodies located in the rough ER
-hypofusion/lipofuscion the yellow pigment
-neurofibrils (maintains shape and support)
Dendrites ------ structures that receive stimulus and send info to cell body, tree-shaped
Axon ------ takes all info from cell body and it is a strong enough stimulus it will send out information, long thin cylindrical w/ branches
Where are the places an Axon will send a stimulus? ------ Towards/Away from: neuron along the path, the brain, the spinal cord, glands, muscles, cells, organs
Parts of an Axon: ------ Hillock, initial segment, trigger zone, axon collateral, axolemma, axoplasm, axon terminal, myelin sheath
Hillock ------ cone-shaped, cell body of axon
Initial segment ------ first part of the axon closest to the axon hillock
Trigger Zone ------ junction of hillock and initial segment
axolemma ------ plasma membrane of the axon
asoplasm ------ cytoplasm of the axon
axon terminal ------ the many fine processes at the end of the axon
myelin sheath ------ only on myelinated axons/ Ex: PNS
NTS ------ stands for neurotransmitters
What are neurolgia and how large is it? ------ also known as glial, smaller than neurons, 5 to 50X more, take up 1/2 volume of CNS
What do neurolgia do? ------ They do not generate AP's, can divide, nourish/insulate/support/protect neurons
How many types or neurolgia are there? ------ 6 types. 4 in CNS, 2 in PNS
4 types of neurolgia in CNS ------ Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes,Microbial cells, ependymal cells
astrocytes ------ takes up the excess NTS's and maintains the K+ balance, star shaped cells, largest and most numerous
oligondendrocytes ------ produces and secretes myelin, which increases the speed of AP's
microbial/ microglia ------ small phagocytic with spinelike projections, eats microbes and cell debris
ependymal cells ------ possess cilia and microvilli, lines the surface, secretes CSF (cerebrealspinal fluid)
2 types of neurolgia ------ schwann cells and satellite cells
schwann cells ------ myelin sheath (speeds up AP)
satellite cells ------ supports neuron cell bodies in the ganglion
Nerve Repair ------ -occurs only in PNS
-neurolemma repairs damadged axon (schwann cells)
nodes of ranvier ------ "sausages" gaps in the myelin sheath, appear in intervals along the axon
RMP ------ resting membrane potential
electrochemical gradient ------ a concentration (chemical) difference plus an electrical difference
what happens when ion channels open? ------ they allow specific ions to move across the plasma membrane
how to ions move ------ from a higher concentration to a lower concentration, postively charged cations move toward a neg. charged area
 ion charges open and close due to... ------ gates/channels
leakage channels ------ randomly alternate b/w open and closed. Permeabililty to K+ much higher than to NA+
ligand-gated channel ------ opens and closes in response to a specific chemical stimulus, a wide variety of chemical ligands can open and close channels
What are some examples of chemical ligands ------ neurotransmitters and hormones
What does the neurotransmitter acetylcholine do? ------ opens cation channels that allow Na+ and Ca+ to diffuse inward and K+ to diffuse outward
Mechanically gated channels ------ open or close in response to mechanical stimulation in the form of vibration, touch, pressure or tissue stretching
voltage gated channels ------ opens in response to a change in membrane potential (voltage)
how does resting membrane potential exist ------ because of a small buildup of -ions in the cytosol along the inside of the membrane and equal buildup of +ions in ECF along outer surface
potential energy is measured in... ------ millivolts (mv)
what is potential energy ------ a separation of positive and negative electrical charges
what is true about the difference in charge across the membrane ------ the greater the difference the larger the membrane potential (voltage)
what is graded potential ------ a small deviation from the membrane potential that makes the membrane more polarized or less polarized
more polarized ------ the inside is more negative
less polarized ------ the inside is less negative
hyperpolarizing ------ when the response makes the membrane more polarized
depolarizing graded potential ------ when the response makes the membrane less polarized
decremental conduction ------ the mode of travel by which graded potentials die out as they spread along the membrane
summation ------ the process by which graded potentials add together
propagagtion ------ the AP keeps its strength as it spreads along the membrane
continous conduction ------ involves step by step depolarization and repolarization of each adjacent segment of the plasma membrane
salatory conduction ------ the special mode of AP propagation that occurs along myelinated axons, occurs b/c of uneven distribution of voltage-gated channels
nodes of Ranvier (no myelin sheath) ------ the axolemma has many voltage-gated channels
what are the two consequences of a current crossing the membrane ------ AP appears to leap from node to node as each nodal area depolarized to threshold=saltatory, opening a small # of channels, energy efficient
what three things effect the speed of propagation of an AP ------ amount of myelination, axon diameter, and temperature
amount of myelination ------ AP propagates more rapidly along myelinated axons than along unmyelinated axons
axon diameter ------ larger-diameter axons propagate AP faster than smaller ones due to their larger surface areas
temperature ------ axons propagate AP's at lower speeds when cooled
presynaptic neuron ------ the synapse b/w neurons, it is the neuron sending the signal
postsynaptic neuron ------ neuron receiving the message
axodendritic ------ from axon to dendrite
axoaxonic ------ from axon to axon
What are the two types of synapses ------ electrical and chemical
what are synapses essential for ------ homeostasis b/c they allow info to be filtered and integrated
what can come from the disruptions of synaptic communication ------ diseases and neurological disorders
electrical synapse ------ AP's conduct directly b/w adjacent cells through structures called gap junctions
where are gap junctions common ------ visceral smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, developing embryo, CNS
What are two main advantages to electrical synapses ------ Faster communication and Synchronization
Faster communication ------ faster communication, b/c AP conduct directly through gap junctions, they are faster
Synchronization ------ coordination of the activity of a group of neurons or muscle fibers, can produce AP's in unison 
Chemical synapses ------ plasma membranes of presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons that are close but do not touch
postsynaptic potential ------ type of grade potential caused when postsynaptic neuron recieves chemical signal
epsp ------ excitatory and inhibitory posysynaptic potential (neurotransmitter deploarizes the postsynaptic membrane bringing it closer to threshold
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential  ------ IPSP, neurotransmitter that causes hyperpolarization, membrane potential becomes more negative and farther than threshold
iontropic receptor ------ a type of neurotransmitter receptor that contains a NT binding site and an ion channel, are components of the same protein
what kind of channel is an iontropic receptor ------ ligand-gated channels
when does ESPS or IPSP  occur in the postsynaptic cell ------ w/out the ligand, the ion channel component of ionotropic receptor is closed, when correct neurotransmitter binds ion channel opens
what do epsp's result in ------ opening of cation channels and allow K+, Na+, and Ca+ through the cell membrane
what do ipsp's result from ------ opening Cl channels, when these open chloride ions diffuse inward
spatial summation... ------ is the summation of postsynaptic potentials in response to stimuli that occur at different locations in membrane at the same time
temporal summation ------ summation of postsynaptic potentials in response to stimuli that occur at the same location in membrane at different times (gradual)
acetylcholine (ACh) ------ released by many PNS neurons and by some CNS neurons, when binding occurs w/ ionotropic receptors cation channels open
Glutamate ------ glutamic acids (amino acid) powerful excitatory affect
asparate ------ aspartic acid (amino acid) powerful excitatory affect
gamma aminobutyric acid and glycine ------ GABA and glycine are important inhibitory neurotransmitters, opens Cl channels
norepinephrine (NE) ------ plays roles in arousal (awakening from deep sleep), dreaming, regulating mood, serves as hormones
epinephrine ------ neurotransmitter, serves as hormones
dopamine ------ are active during emotional responses, addictive behavior and pleasurable experiences, help regulate skeletal muscle tone and some mvmnt
serotonin ------ concentrated in the neurons in a part of the brain, involved in sensory perception, temp regulation, control of mood, appetite and sleep
nitric oxide ------ important w/ widespread effects throughout the body
neuropeptides ------ numerous and widespread in both CNS and PNS, bind to metabotropic receptors, have excitatory and inhibitory actions
enkephalins ------ 200x stronger than morphine
endorphins and dynorphins ------ bodies natural painkillers